2022/23: Port Elliott (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2022/23: Port Elliott (South Australia) pH 8.52 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2022/23: Hindmarsh Valley (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2022/23: Hindmarsh Valley (South Australia) pH 8.62 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Tasmanian Government “Downplays” Pesticide Monitoring?
A recent Right to Information request with TasWater, has raised concerns regarding pesticide monitoring in domestic water supplies in Tasmania. TasWater was punctual in responding to the request, with the process only taking 32 days, however the information provided leaves more questions than answers.
Trevallyn Dam, located 5km west of Launceston’s CBD. What was the source of the Atrazine that was detected in the Dam on August 8 2018 and were the public informed? Why was there no investigation to identify the source of the pollution? Was the entire dam contaminated? If so for how long?
Information requested from TasWater included results of all pesticide monitoring in Tasmanian water supplies between 2016 to 2023. TasWater provided 149 positive results, between Feb 2016 and August 2018 only. No information was provided for the past 5 years, which is odd considering that between 2013-2018, pesticide detections averaged 29 per year. It seems implausible that detections immediately ceased in August 2018, just 22 days after Tasmania’s most serious pesticide in a domestic water supply incident (ever?). That occurred in Launceston’s Trevallyn Dam on August 8 2018, when the herbicide Atrazine was detected at 27µg/L (27 parts per billion), 35% higher than the Australian drinking water guideline. The last TasWater positive detection occurred on August 30 2018 at the Macquarie River at Longford. Since then there apparently have been no pesticide detections in Tasmanian water supplies. Really? What’s going on?
To put the Trevallyn Dam incident into some context, pesticide breaches to the ADWG’s (Australian Drinking Water Guidelines) are relatively rare events. FoE has recorded only 27 such incidents throughout Australia. The Trevallyn Dam incident is the 22nd most “serious” in relation to Australian drinking water guidelines. In terms of the infamous herbicide Atrazine, levels detected at Trevallyn Dam were the 6th highest recorded in an Australian water supply. Interestingly, the levels were 270 times higher than European Guidelines (any pesticide detection >0.1µg/L is regarded as a breach and is supposed to be investigated to determine the source) and 9 times higher than equivalent Atrazine guidelines in the United States.
The drop off in TasWater detections can partly be explained by TasWater themselves. According to the RTI letter from TasWater dated 4/10/23, “TasWater now test for 21 pesticides on a quarterly* basis. The pesticides are: 2,4 D, Alpha-cypermethrin, Atrazine, Dimethoate, Boscalid, Chlorpyrifos, Chlorothalonil, Clopyralid, Cyanazine, Glyphosate, Dicamba, Haloxyfop, Hexazinone, MCPA, Metribuzin, Metsulfuron methyl, Pendimethalin, Prometryn, Simazine, Sulfometuron-methyl, Terbacil.“For the period 1 January 2016 – 1 September 2023, TasWater carried out over 53,000 tests for pesticides. In 149 cases, pesticides were detected”.
(* Note quarterly means once every three months or only 1.12% of days per year).
This could imply a 0.28% chance of detecting a pesticide, with a 0.002% chance of detecting a pesticide above Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Perhaps the cost of testing outweighed the information gained from such testing? Perhaps funding for the tests has gone elsewhere? Perhaps TasWater have actually substantially reduced or eliminated pesticide testing in most catchments entirely? It appears to FoE that they have indeed decreased testing by at least 50%+ from what had occurred prior to September 1 2018.
According to TasWater on August 14 2018 (6 days after the Trevallyn dam incident!!!): “Historically, we have had few detections of pesticides and therefore the only time we would test for pesticides within the distribution network as if we are undertaking a specific investigation or whether we have had pesticide detections in the source water (raw water) above historical levels (i.e. if we notice a change)…We have a comprehensive water quality monitoring program that is routinely reviewed and to date we have not identified pesticides in our systems above (or approaching) the health limits in the ADWG.”
The RTI data also reveals that at some locations in 2016 (eg Bothwell, Bridport, Tunbridge) TasWater appear to have tested fortnightly at some times of the year. It is also entirely plausible that many locations were not tested at all.
TasWater can’t be entirely be blamed for not wanting to embark on more strenuous and frequent pesticide testing. Nine years ago the Tasmanian Government raised eyebrows by axing their decade-long pesticide testing program conducted by the Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment (DPIPWE). The program was axed just when results started revealing the highest amounts of pesticides. Up until that time, it was the most comprehensive pesticide testing regime in Australia. TasWater are mainly concerned about monitoring domestic water supplies. It would appear that the bulk of Tasmanian waterways, similar to the rest of Australia (outside of GBR catchments in Queensland), remain untested for. Why?
Pesticide detections were dominated by the herbicide MCPA, almost all of which occurred in 2016. 2018 detections however were dominated by the herbicides Sulfometuron Methyl and Metsulfuron Methyl.
Apart from the incident at Trevallyn Dam, the most serious raw water incidents, at 30% of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, occurred in 2018 in raw water at Pats River Weir Whitemark (Atrazine at 6µg/L), Cornwall in an unnamed stream (Metsulfuron Methyl 12µg/L) and Lake Barron Creek Weir, just upstream of National Park east of Mount Field National Park where Simazine was detected at 6µg/L. The small community of Lake Barron, on Lake Barron island recorded an MCPA detection of 11µg/L in 2016 (27.5% of ADWG), Cannes Hill Reservoir near the community of Whitemark recorded Atrazine at 3µg/L (15% of ADWG) and MCPA at 5.3µg/L (13.25% of ADWG) in 2018 and 2016. Also of interest was the contamination of all 5 bores at Lady Barron with the herbicide Clopyralid with levels in one bore at 180µg/L.
In terms of supplied water (coming through customers taps), an MCPA detection of 2.7µg/L in March 2016 (7% of ADWG) occurred at Whitemark Depot, and two detections of Metsulfuron Methyl of 2µg/L (5% of ADWG) at Herrick Reservoir in May 2018 and another of 1µg/L (2.5% of ADWG) in June 2018. Other water supply detections at Bridport, Lady Barron Police Station, Prospect Vale, Launceston, Bothwell and Longford were below 1% of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Whilst the most frequently pesticide detected was MCPA, 20 detections of Sulfometuron Methyl occurred over a 43 day period between April 30 and June 11 2018. According to FoE records, the only detections of Sulfometuron Methyl in domestic water supplies in Australia occurred in Tasmania during this period, with the highest levels 75µg/L recorded at Adventure Bay on Bruny Island on 25/5/18. Sulfometuron Methyl is registered for use in commercial and industrial areas and rights of way such as roads, powerlines and telephone lines). How did this herbicide impact so many water supplies over a 6 week period? There are no drinking water guidelines for Sulfometuron Methyl.
Tasmanian pesticide detections recorded mainly over the past 30 years from a number of sources according to the Australian Pesticide Map. ~89% of all detections are located in the northern half of the state.
31 different locations recorded pesticide detections between 2016-2018, with the most occurring at Bothwell (16), Tunbridge (11), Whitemark (11), Bridport 10, Gladstone 10, Lady Barron 10, Cornwall 8, Yolla 8, Herrick 7 and Trevallyn Dam 7.
Although communities such as Bothwell and Tunbridge may have recorded the most detections of pesticides, many of their detections were low in comparison to drinking water guideline levels. By accumulating all detections as a percentage of ADWG’s, it becomes apparent that the highest risk location for breaches to ADWG’s was Trevallyn Dam, due mainly to the Atrazine incident of August 2018. These events are however sporadic and to be a major concern for water authorities, events would have to be ongoing and above ADWG’s.
Potential Environmental Impacts
Drinking water is the main focus of TasWater’s testing regimes. However there is another aspect that has to be considered, and that is the ecological impact to species within the waterways themselves. Ecological guideline levels are generally much lower than drinking water guideline levels. Ecological impacts of toxicants in waterways are explained in the ANZECC Guidelines, which specify guideline/trigger levels for a number of pesticides. The ANZECC guidelines do not cover all pesticides. In fact FoE found in 2017 that ~11% of pesticides detected in Australian waterways, had ANZECC Guidelines and that only 3.5% of pesticides registered for use in Australia had ANZECC guidelines. Most of these guidelines date back to 2000, although a handful of pesticides have been granted guideline levels since 2020, the most notable, in terms of Tasmanian waterways being Metsulfuron Methyl.
In simple terms, toxicants have 4 trigger levels specified under the ANZECC Guidelines. High quality environmental streams, eg those with little environmental degradation warrant the highest protection level of 99%. This means that a toxicant entering such a waterway has a guideline level that supposedly will protect 99% of the species within that waterway. The more degraded the waterway, the less species protection. In many degraded urban streams for example the ecological trigger level will be 80%. Guideline levels are therefore are much “stricter” the more pristine the waterway. For example for Metsulfuron Methyl the 99% trigger level is 0.0037µg/L. The 95% trigger level is 0.018µg/L, the 90% trigger level is 0.048µg/L and the 80% trigger level is 0.18µg/l, 48 times higher than the guideline in pristine waterways.
State’s then define what level of protection is warranted for waterways throughout their areas of jurisdiction. National Parks and high conservation value areas would warrant the highest level of protection, whereas slightly to moderately disturbed waterways (eg agricultural areas) generally warrant a 95% trigger level. Deriving ecological guideline levels can be an extremely complicated undertaking. Generally speaking pollution events may also occur over a short duration, during flood events, where “pulses” of contaminants may enter waterways for a limited time period.
In terms of 99% and 95% trigger levels, by the far the most breaches to ecological guideline trigger levels relate to detections of Metsulfuron Methyl. All detections of Metsulfuron Methyl breached both the 99% and 95% trigger levels implying that this particular herbicide is of most concern regarding the ecological impacts upon waterways in Tasmania. Although MCPA was the most frequently detected herbicide by TasWater testing, only 8% of MCPA samples breached ecological guidelines. Metsulfuron Methyl is used on pastures, rights of way, commercial and industrial areas and forest plantations.
95% trigger level pesticide breaches 2016-2018, based on TasWater pesticide test regimes. 90% of breaches occur in the north of the state, with the majority in the north east of the state, including Launceston.
Curries Dam, drinking water supply for George Town and popular fishing location near centre of image. Tamar River and George Town/Bell Bay on the left of image.
TasWater recorded a detection of the organophosphate insecticide Chlorpyrifos at the Curries River offtake of 1µg/L in August 2017. Chlorpyrifos has an exceedingly low 99% guideline level of 0.00004µg/L. This means that the detection of this insecticide at the Currie River was 25,000 times above the 99% ecological trigger level and ten times the 95% ecological trigger level. The same location also recorded Metsulfuron Methyl in May 2018 at 67 times the 99% trigger level and almost 14 times the 95% trigger level. What was the source of the Chlorpyrifos and Metsulfuron Methyl? Why was an investigation not carried out? TasWater’s main role is to provide safe drinking water to consumers, the ecological impacts of toxicants in water supplies is not apparently the agencies priority. Was the EPA informed?
Average levels of the 18 Metsulfuron Methyl detections across Tasmania were 65 times higher than the 99% trigger level and 12 times higher than the 95% trigger level. The most detections occurred in the states north west at Yolla (Dowling Creek). Metsulfuron Methyl was detected over a two month period in 2016 at an average of nine times the 99% trigger level and almost two times the 95% trigger level at Dowling Creek.
Metsulfuron Methyl only “gained” an ecological guideline level in 2021, meaning that when the herbicide was detected by TasWater in 2016 and 2018 barely anyone would have “batted an eyelid“. It also appears that the recent guideline levels have not led to any restrictions of the Metsulfuron Methyl label, despite the exceedingly small ecological guideline level. Pesticide labels specify what amounts of the particular chemical can be sprayed on specific crops and land uses.
Any heavy rainfall events that occur after recent spraying can lead to offsite pollution events. This is particularly the case when many hectares of land in logged plantations for example are left exposed with limited vegetation to lessen soil and pesticide movement off site. If TasWater testing picked up many breaches to ANZECC guidelines in their limited testing regimes in 2016 and 2018 what is going on in terms of Metsulfuron Methyl pollution in other waterways throughout the state since then? No data No Problem?
In terms of the Tasmanian detections in an Australian context, based on FoE pesticide records.
Atrazine: Lake Trevallyn 8/8/18 27µg/L. Australia’s 6th highest detection of Atrazine in a domestic water supply and 22nd highest detection of any pesticide in a domestic water supply. (Atrazine Australian Drinking Water Guideline 20µg/L. ANZECC trigger levels 99% 0.7µg/L, 95% 13µg/L).
Chlorpyrifos: Curries River 10/8/17 1µg/L: Australia’s 2nd highest detection of Chlorpyrifos in a domestic water supply. (Chlorpyrifos Australian Drinking Water Guideline 10µg/L. ANZECC trigger levels 99% 0.00004µg/L, 95% 0.01µg/L).
Clopyralid: Lady Barron Bores 14/12/16 22-180µg/L: Australia’s 5 highest detections of Clopyralid in a domestic water supply and in any water source. (Clopyralid Australian Drinking Water Guideline 2000µg/L. No ANZECC trigger levels).
Dicamba: Lady Barron 7/5/18, Whitemark 7/5/18, Cornwall 8/5/18 0.6µg/L – 0.7µg/L: Australia’s 3rd, 4th and 5th highest detections of Dicamba in a domestic water supply. (Dicamba Australian Drinking Water Guideline 100µg/L. No ANZECC trigger levels).
Hexazinone: Ringarooma WTP 3/7/18 9.5µg/L. Australia’s 4th highest detection of Hexazinone in a domestic water supply. (Hexazinone Australian Drinking Water Guideline 400µg/L. ANZECC trigger levels 99% 0.31µg/L, 95% 1.1µg/L).
MCPA: Lady Barron 2/3/16 5.3µg/L. Australia’s 2nd highest detection of MCPA in a domestic water supply and 4th highest detection in any water source. 11µg/L. Whitemark 2/3/16. (MCPA Australian Drinking Water Guideline 40µg/L. ANZECC trigger levels 99% 1.4µg/L, 95% 1.4µg/L).
Metsulfuron Methyl: Australia’s 9 highest detections of Metsulfuron Methyl in domestic water supplies. 8/5/18 Cornwall 12µg/L (max) highest detection in any Australian waterway. (Metsulfuron Methyl Australian Drinking Water Guideline 40µg/L. ANZECC trigger levels 99% 0.0037µg/L, 95% 0.18µg/L).
Simazine: Lady Barron Creek Weir 26/7/18 6µg/L. Australia’s 5th highest detection of Simazine in a domestic water supply. (Simazine Australian Drinking Water Guideline 20µg/L. ANZECC trigger levels 99% 0.2µg/L, 95% 3.2µg/L).
Sulfometuron-methyl: Australia’s 10 highest detections of Sulfometuron Methyl in Australian domestic water supplies and Australian waterway. 25/5/18 Adventure Bay 75µg/L (max). (Sulfometurn Methyl has no Australian Drinking Water Guideline and no ANZECC trigger levels).
For more information or to make a tax deductible donation contact anthony.amis@foe.org.au
Are Queenslanders “Microdosing” on Weedkillers in their drinking water?
The answer to this question, is probably yes depending on where you live.
Pesticides in waterways are a common occurrence. Pesticides can wash off land particularly during rainfall events. If a community’s drinking water supply is located on a waterway downstream of where these chemicals are applied, there is a risk that the water could contain pesticide residues. Pesticides can also pollute groundwater. Some communities rely on bore water for drinking water. Pesticides can also move on air currents through a phenomenon called spray drift and end up in water supplies.
If the water supply offtake is connected to a water treatment plant then it is likely that pesticides in the source water, if present, will be significantly reduced or even eliminated by the treatment process employed. Powder Activated Carbon (PAC) is a relatively common method of reducing (but not entirely eliminating) pesticides in water, but not every water treatment plant will use PAC and standard water treatment facilities are not successful in removing pesticides. Once the treated water leaves the water treatment plant it is transported in the reticulation network to customer taps.
Original photo taken 8 Jan 2006 by Nick J
The number one concern of water authorities however are the dangers of micro-biological contaminants in the raw water which if found in the reticulated system can cause very serious health problems.
A number of other chemicals and substances can also be present in the raw, treated and reticulated water. Some chemicals are added at water treatment plants, such as chlorine, which in turn can create disinfection by-products. Pipes and plumbing can also have residues of heavy metals such as lead. Pesticides are generally regarded lower down the list of concerns for water authorities.
Another complicating factor is pesticide testing. This is costly with some samples costing hundreds of dollars each. To regularly test for the suite of possibly hundreds of pesticides used within a catchment around the year is an extremely costly exercise. As a result, some water authorities restrict their pesticide testing to once year or in some cases not at all. To add to the problem, in Queensland, local councils (often cash-strapped) are generally responsible for guaranteeing (and testing) safe drinking water to residents. Pesticide testing may be a low priority.
Users of pesticides are also under no obligation to inform the local council exactly what they are spraying. The more agriculture in a catchment, the higher the chances of pesticide runoff. Many of the catchments in coastal northern Queensland have large amounts of land devoted to crops such as sugarcane and bananas. Pesticides such as Atrazine can be used up to 3.3kg/ha in sugarcane, which may not sound like a lot, however pesticides can impact on water supplies less than parts per billion*, so it does not take alot of chemical to tarnish a water supply. (*One part per billion is equivalent to one drop in an Olympic size swimming pool). Many farms have also been established in high risk/runoff locations making relocation or retirement of farms unlikely.
Pesticide Reporting Portal
That being said, some of the most thorough pesticide testing in Australia has been conducted by the Queensland Government over the past decade. The Pesticide Reporting Portal provides a wealth of information on pesticide detections in a number of Queensland waterways, with a particular focus on waterways that flow into the Great Barrier Reef.
By accessing information from the Portal, over 72,000 pesticide detections from 39 current locations have been sighted by FoE. The amount of data in some cases stretches back to 2011. From these 39 locations, FoE determined that only 7[***] of the current testing locations were located in domestic water supplies.
These included: The Haughton River at Giru (just downstream from the towns offtake), the Pioneer River at Dumbleton Weir Mackay (the offtake to Mackay’s drinking water), the Fitzroy River at Rockhampton (near Rockhampton’s offtake) and Comet Weir (near the small town of Comet’s drinking water supply). The portal gives a unique insight into pesticide contamination of Australian waterways.
The timing of testing varied between these locations ranging back to 2011 for the Pioneer River (5647 positive samples) and Comet River (1628 positive samples), 2017 for the Haughton River (871 positive samples) and 2014 for the Fitzroy River (1976 positive samples). The testing also found 874 positive samples in the Burnett River (Bundaberg) from August 2017.
(*The city of Bundaberg sources drinking water from the Burnett River and bores. The location where the Queensland Government testing is conducted takes place 5km downstream of Branyan Water Treatment Plant offtake. The Government also have a testing location on Spliters Creek which flows into the Burnett River about 1km downstream of the Branyan WTP offtake. Nevertheless, testing of 6 water reservoirs at Bundaberg by the local council has revealed the presence of pesticides. Reservoirs fed by bore water have tested positive for the herbicide Bromacil. A number of other Reservoirs are supplied water from Sun Water (eg The Gooburrum Main Channel sourced from Burnett River feeds into the Vecillios Road Reservior) and pesticides have also been found in these reservoirs. Sunwater also use the herbicide Acrolein to control weeds in their channels).
(*The town of Ingham relies primarily on bore water, however the town can draw from the Herbert River as an alternative. Queensland Government testing has recorded almost 2400 pesticide detections in the Herbert River since August 2011. The testing location appears to be in close proximity to the Water Treatment Plant. 23 pesticides have been detected with the most frequently detected being Diuron, Imidacloprid, Atrazine and 2,4-D. Of the 12 bores at Ingham, local council testing has found traces of Atrazine in 5 bores and Imidacloprid in 9. Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid insecticide with no Australian Drinking Water Guideline).
(*The town of Innisfail relies on drinking water from the Johnstone River. Queensland Government testing has recorded over 760 pesticide detections in the North Johnstone River since February 2012. The current Queensland testing location at Goondi is a couple of kilometres downstream from the Innisfail offtake. 16 pesticides have been detected with the most frequently detected being Imidacloprid, Diuron and 2,4-D. Local Government testing has found traces of 6 pesticides in the Innisfail raw water supply with the most frequently detected being Imidacloprid. The highest detection being 0.23µg/L).
Bundaberg: Approximate location of the Branyan WTP marked with wavy lines. Queensland Government testing points marked with blue pins. WTP samples therefore would not be ‘influenced’ by Spliters Creek. Spliters Creek flows into the Burnett River upstream of the Qld Govt Bundaberg/Burnett River testing site. The Burnett River site is also well downstream of the WTP offtake but will be influenced by whatever is washing down Spliters Creek and Bundaberg itself. Spliters creek pesticide samples were dominated by Metolachlor, Atrazine and 2,4-D. Branyan WTP over the past few years has recorded detections of: Atrazine, Hexazinone, Metolachlor, 2,4-D, Dalapon and Tebuthiuron at levels averaging 0.07% of Australian Drinking Water Guideline levels.
Four different water supplies
To standardise the test results the following graph looks at pesticide detections from four water supplies (excluding Bundaberg, Ingham and Innisfail) since October 2017. The graph shows that in terms of total pesticide amounts detected by the Queensland Government tests, Diuron and Atrazine were the biggest problem chemical for the Pioneer River at Dumbleton Weir Mackay, with Tebuthiuron being most problematic for the Fitzroy River Rockhampton and Comet River at Comet Weir. Atrazine and Tebuthiuron were the most frequently detected pesticides at Giru over the 5 ½ year period.
The graph below shows that the largest pesticide detection volumes of the Haughton, Pioneer, Fitzroy and Comet Rivers over 5 ½ years were detected in the Pioneer River at Mackay, followed by the Comet River, Fitzroy River and Haughton River. This shows that in terms of drinking water and risks associated with pesticides, Mackay would appear to be the standout.
The graph does not provide insight into what chemical loads have been coming down the Pioneer River for many years. Out of 16,500 tests carried out by the Queensland Government at Dumbleton Weir on the Pioneer River between 2011 and 2023, 34% were positive for pesticides. Of these tests 92.7% of samples tested positive for Diuron and 87% were positive for Atrazine. What this means is that almost every sample of water taken from Dumbleton Weir will contain Atrazine and Diuron. The average level of detection of both was around 0.5µg/L, well under the Australian Drinking water guideline for both herbicides (20µg/L), but 5 times higher than the European Guideline and for Atrazine 5 times higher than the level required to cause issues with hormones.
Of the 39 waterways tested for pesticides over the past decade average levels in the Pioneer River came in at 11th in the waterways tested for across catchments flowing into the Great Barrier Reef.
Atrazine has been found to cause hormonal changes in amphibians at 0.1µg/L. It is banned in Europe. There are no Australian drinking water guidelines for Fluroxypur, Imidacloprid and Tebuthiuron. In fact FoE found in 2016 that 41% of pesticides detected in Australian waterways do not have Australian Drinking Water guidelines.
Atrazine Diversion
Non-legally enforceable guidelines for many agricultural chemicals and other substances in drinking water are set by the National Health and Medical Research Council. Safe is debatable term. To determine safe levels of pesticides, human testing is not allowed, so testing is conducted on animals. For Atrazine the No Observed Effect Level (NOEL) was based on a 2 year study of rats. This amount was then divided by 100 which incorporates a factor of 10 for interspecies extrapolation and 10 for intraspecies variation. An estimation of body weight of a 70kg male drinking 2L of water a day is also included in the calculation to determine ‘safe’ dose.
Are impacts on the endocrine system and other issues concerning long term low level exposure to pesticide included in these estimations? The guidelines also do not take into account impacts from mixtures of low levels of chemicals, where synergistic effects may occur. Are these effects included in the 100 ‘safety factor’? If so how? It’s also interesting to note that the Australian drinking water guideline for Atrazine (set 12 years ago) is 20µg/L. In Europe, pesticides have a drinking water guideline of 0.1µg/L. In the United States the drinking water guideline for Atrazine is set at 3µg/L and long term exposure above this level is linked to cardiovascular system or reproductive problems. The Australian guideline prior to 2011 was 40µg/L.
Australian scientists have recently called for Atrazine to be withdrawn in Australia for its effect on male fertility.
Other studies have stated: “Current regulatory levels for chronic exposure are based on no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) of these LH alterations in rodent studies. Atrazine has also been studied for its effects on the central nervous system and neurotransmission. The European Union (EU) recognized the health risks of atrazine exposure as a public health concern with no way to contain contamination of drinking water. As such, the EU banned atrazine use in 2003. The United States recently reapproved atrazine’s use in the fall of 2020. Research has shown that there is a wide array of adverse health effects that are seen across multiple models, exposure times, and exposure periods leading to dysfunction in many different systems in the body with most pointing to a neuroendocrine target of toxicity.”
The following graphic reveals some of the complexities grappling researchers studying impacts of Atrazine and its metabolites.
In terms of impacts to drinking water, the Queensland Government test data can only surmise what is potentially ending up in consumer taps. It is highly unlikely that local Government authorities were testing their water treatment plants at the time that the Queensland Government was doing their monitoring. Some councils monitor for pesticides on an annual basis. Others test every few months using grab samples which really only give a chemical amount for an instant in time. Generally speaking if the grab tests show a level of pesticide at a level above the drinking water guidelines, further testing and management protocols should apply.
To try and ascertain what is being detected by Queensland local government, some of the information is published in various council Drinking Water Quality Management Plans which in some cases are published annually. After wading through a number of these plans it was determined that 12 shires published pesticide test results at some time over the past decade. There are however 77 local government areas in Queensland, so the scale of the issue is probably much larger than acknowledged.
Looking at the regional council data, FoE found over 1000 pesticide detections with a maximum detection average of 0.98µg/L. The 1000 test results however included samples taken in raw water, treatment plant water and reticulated water. Once the reticulated water samples were isolated a total of 204 positive detections in reticulated water supplies were found. The maximum detection average level in reticulated supplies was 3.9µg/L. It should be highlighted that there was a general lack of consistency in what defined treated as opposed to reticulated water. The numbers were also skewed by the Mackay incident of Feb & March 2013 where both Diuron and Atrazine were detected at the Nebo Road treatment plan at almost 20 times higher than the Australian Drinking Water Guideline (or 3900 and 3500 times higher than the European Guideline). It is unclear what amounts of Atrazine and Diuron ended up being consumed in Mackay as a result of this incident, but if this incident is removed from the spreadsheet the maximum pesticide detection average in reticulated water drops to 0.265µg/L.
Average detection levels in comparison to the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines for pesticides with guideline levels was 39.68%, once again including the 2013 spike of Atrazine and Diuron at Mackay. If the 2013 Nebo Road WTP incident is removed, the average pesticide detection level is 1.97% of current Australian Drinking Water Guideline Levels. 1.97% of guideline levels does probably not warrant much attention from water authorities, as there will be other chemicals found at much higher levels in water supplies which will take priority.
Friends of the Earth produced a report in 2017 looking at pesticide detections in Victorian water supplies for the years 2007-16. That report found that the average pesticide detection in mostly raw water was 0.46µg/L, with the average pesticide level in comparison to Australian Drinking Water Guidelines was 0.98%.
Source: Mackay Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2013/14. How was the community notified about this incident. What amounts of Diuron and Atrazine ended up in reticulation? What areas of Mackay had the highest levels and for how long? Were there health impacts eg pregnant women?
The most positive test results according to various Drinking Water Quality Management Plans, from raw, treated and reticulated local council samples came from Western Downs Shire (274), followed by Bundaberg Shire (177), Mackay Shire (164), Banana Shire (149), Central Highlands Shire (127), Burdekin Shire (99), Flinders Shire (36), Hinchinbook Shire (33), Issac Shire (20), Cassowary Shire (14), Maranoa Shire (14) and Tablelands Shire (13). There was little consistency across these shires in terms of reporting data with some conducting testing one year, but then not following up the year after. Some of the test results were published, with others not.
19 separate pesticides were detected by local government testing, with Atrazine and its metabolites making up 49.5% of all detections, followed by Metolachlor 13.2% and Tebuthiuron 11.3%.
Interestingly there was no positive samples for Rockhampton. Whilst the Fitzroy River doesn’t seem to have the same pesticide loads as the Pioneer River at Mackay, the lack of positive detections is possibly explained by a lack of testing for pesticides used within the Fitzroy catchment by Rockhampton Shire. It is unclear whether the council actually test for the main pesticides found in the Fitzroy River by the Queensland Government namely, Tebuthiuron, Metolachlor, Atrazine, Terbuthylazine, 2,4-D, Simazine, Fluroxypur etc.
From FoE’s assessment approximately 300,000 people in Queensland in approximately 12 shires have been exposed to pesticides in the drinking water over the past decade. The main concern areas being Mackay, Marian, Bundaberg, Ayr, Home Hill, Giru/Cungulla, Ingham, Biloela, Capella, Comet, Prairie, Baralaba and Jandowae.
It is likely that similar results would occur in many other regions of Australia.
The Queensland situation appears to be quite serious, particularly if one also factors in ecological impacts of application of pesticides. European guidelines suggest that any pesticide detection >0.1µg/L in a water supply need to be investigated by authorities to understand the source of the pollution and to try and stop the pollution occurring. Queensland Government testing suggest that the 0.1µg/L level was breached over 27,000 times over the past decade. Investigators would be hard pressed to find the source of the pesticides, considering their widespread use throughout Queensland.
Top ten detections of pesticides in Queensland domestic water supplies according to Council water quality management plans.
Darlngunaya Community into second day with no water supply
Feb 5 2024. https://nit.com.au/05-02-2024/9630/breaking-darlngunaya-community-into-second-day-with-no-water-supply
A remote Indigenous community in the Fitzroy Valley, in WA’s far north, has gone into day two of having no water supply, locals say.
Resident Natalie Davey said on Monday that the situation had been reported to Department of Communities.
In November last year Ms Davey and others reported that their community continued to have water supply problems after they returned home, having been evacuated to temporary accommodation after the major floods in January.
This week the problems came to a head, with no running water for two days – and counting.
According to the Bureau of Meteorology, the maximum temperature in Darlngunaya is expected to reach 40 C on Monday.
Because of a historical loophole in the land tenure, Darlngunaya is classified as self-managing its water, which means the state government has avoided responsibility for water issues.
National Indigenous Times contacted the WA Department of Water, WA Water Corporation and WA Department of Communities for comment.
Communities advised National Indigenous Times that responsibility for water and power in remote communities was transferred to Water Corporation and Horizon Power as of June last year.
2022/23: Kulpara (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2022/23: Kulpara (South Australia) pH 8.64 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2022/23: Leigh Creek Town (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2022/23: Leigh Creek Town (South Australia) pH 8.5 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2022/23: St Kilda (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 70ug/L (max), 50.67ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2020/21 – Rottnest Island (Western Australia) – Bromate 0.031mg/L (maximum)
The health characteristics sampled during the 2020‐2021 reporting period returned results in line with those taken during the 2019‐2020 period, returning five exceedances of bromate compared with three exceedances in the previous reporting period.
Bromate testing was added to the agreed sampling schedule in the 2017‐2018 reporting period. This followed a request from the Department of Health to participate in a voluntary monitoring program for bromate.
Bromate: Regulatory Standard = 0.02mg/L (Also see section of desalination). A suspected carcinogen. Bromate is formed when ozone used to disinfect drinking water reacts with naturally occurring bromide found in source water. Bromate formation in disinfected drinking water is influenced by factors such as bromide ion concentration, pH of the source water, the amount of ozone and the reaction time used to disinfect the water.
Rottnest Island (Western Australia) – Iron
2020/2021: Rottnest Island (Western Australia) – Iron 0.39mg/L (max), 0.07mg/L (mean/av.)
Iron: 9 of the 102 samples recorded iron concentrations above the Australian Drinking Water
Guidelines aesthetic value of 0.3 mg/L, with the highest concentration reported at 0.91 mg/L
at R12/008 in March 2021. All nine of the iron exceedances occurred at R12/008 during the
reporting period. Investigation into the cause of the exceedances are still ongoing.
Iron has a taste threshold of 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Rottnest Island (Western Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2020/21: Rottnest Island (Western Australia) pH 8.69 (mean)
pH: 2 of 120 samples reported pH values outside the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
aesthetic pH range of 6.5 ‐ 8.5. The exceedances for the 2020‐2021 period were at the
following locations:
R12/002 in July 2020 and August 2020, reported a pH of 8.9 and 8.7 respectively, 0.4 and 0.2
pH units above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline upper limit respectively.
In May 2021, R12/004, R12/006 and R12/008 were reported as having pH below the lower
limit in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Recalibration and retesting by the lab
returned results above the lower limit and are therefore no longer reported as exceedances
within this report
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Rottnest Island (Western Australia) Nickel
2020/21: Rottnest Island (Western Australia) Nickel 0.034mg/L
There was one health exceedance within this reporting period for Nickel at Visitor Centre drinking fountain in August 2020. The source of the exceedance was found to be corroded fittings, which were replaced before the next monitoring round. There were no exceedances following the parts replacement and the drinking fountain was opened for public use in September 2020
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Porongurup – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
2022/23: Porongurup (Western Australia Total Dissolved Solids 611mg/L (max), 585mg/L (mean)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Locals furious over South Burnett’s drinking water, Deb Frecklington responds
29/12/23:
South Burnett residents have expressed outrage at the ongoing state of the regions drinking water. One resident has questions for council, including asking if they would bath a newborn in the discoloured water…. In May of this year a South Burnett Council spokesperson said the council was unaware of the water being undrinkable as it met Australian drinking .
COMPLETE CALAMITY: Embarrassing state of Douglas Shire water supply again exposed for all to see
22/1/24 Michael Warren: https://www.newsport.com.au/articles-archive/2024/january/complete-calamity-embarrassing-state-of-douglas-shire-water-supply-again-exposed-for-all-to-see
UPDATED: 12.01PM, Monday, 22/1
Douglas Shire Council just released a statement regarding the current water issue. It read:
Continuous heavy rainfall has caused high turbidity at the water intakes, affecting the performance of water treatment plants at Mossman, Whyanbeel and Wonga.
Last night Council was forced to turn off water supply to Port Douglas following a severe drop in water reservoir levels. Council is working to increase the treated water reservoirs to a level which allows the water supply to be turned back on.
“Staff are working hard to find short and long-term solutions to this current supply issue,” Council said in its prepared statement just moments ago.
“We realise this is a challenging time for both residents, visitors and businesses but we ask for your patience while we get the water running again.”
Council said it hoped Whyanbeel reservoir was at a sufficient level by midday today for water to be sent slowly through to Wonga, Rocky Point and Miallo residents.
The ongoing status of Douglas Shire water supply and accessibility has reached embarrassingly calamity proportions with access either turned off or reduced across the Douglas Shire over the past 24-48 hours.
The ongoing water crisis across the Shire has been exacerbated by Douglas Shire residents’ frustration of the perceived ineffective, non-transparent messaging style of Douglas Shire Council.
Many residents took to social media last night to query why the Shire continues to have water issues that leads to snap water restrictions or situations and scenarios that sees access to drinking water immediately turned off, with little to no notice.
“The water supply to Port Douglas will be turned off shortly until further notice,” Council said in a last minute, late night statement 13 hours ago.
“A dramatic drop in the reservoir level a short time ago suggests there might be a major leak in the pipeline.
“We’ll continue to keep you updated on the Port Douglas supply, and developments across the broader pipeline network, including Mossman, Whyanbeel and Wonga.”
This morning just a few hours ago Council released a further statement about the embarrassing water calamity across the Shire.
“Whyanbeel Water Treatment Plant is producing at the moment,” the statement started.
“We are aiming to have the reservoir at 35% before turning water on to Wonga, Rocky Point and Miallo.
“The Mossman Water Treatment Plant was turned off overnight due to turbidity and we will try to turn the plant back on this morning.
“There is no ETA for turning the water back on in Port Douglas but engineers will be on site today to find a temporary solution while a permanent solution is found.
“We appreciate this is a difficult time for everyone. We’ll be providing updates as soon as new information comes to hand.”
Instead Council instructed residents at Wonga and Port Douglas to get bottled water at Wonga State School and Douglas Community Hall.
It’s one thing to have no water, but Douglas Shire residents are collectively fed up and understandably frustrated about the lack of notice regarding water being turned off, and the state of the Council run Douglas Dashboard.
Council encourages residents to check it for the latest information, but when they do – the information is usually inaccurate, outdated and not applicable to the current situation. Another frustration was that local residents received texts or information about the water being turned off, after it had been done, meaning some residents couldn’t get last minute supplies together.
As is stands, there is a disaster meeting happening this very moment where the issue of local water availability is currently being discussed.
Douglas Shire Councillors’ frustration has reached fever pitch regarding the water situation with many lamenting the lack of information they have received from within Council about why, once again, locals are being subjected to water issues.
The ongoing poor state of Douglas Shire water infrustrature has continued to be in the spotlight following last December’s Ex Tropical Cyclone and the ensuing heavy rain event.
Since then the local system has been plagued by breakages, blocked pipes and other issues which have caused snap closures and residents’ access to their water.
No more was this clearly demonstrated then last night where some locals received a random late night email telling them to fill up water containers as soon as possible.
Under the headline emergency Alert for Port Douglas, Craiglie and Mowbray locals received an email at 9.21pm last night from QFES.
It read: An Emergency Alert (Watch and Act) has been issued from the Douglas Shire Council. Increased rainfall has caused unexpected water production issues resulting in loss of water services, which is occurring now. People in Port Douglas, Craiglie and Mowbray will be impacted. You need to fill water containers now.
Over the weekend Newsport received copious amounts of emails from bewildered and angry readers who expressed their frustration that once again their access to water had been severely limited or turned off altogether with little to no notice.
Newsport understands an expert team from Brisbane is being sent up to assess the Douglas Shire water situation. To further complicate the matter DSC CEO Rachel Brophy is currently in Degarra and not on the ground locally to directly address the issue.
Newsport understands a lack of maintenance and aging infrastructure are two reasons behind the Shire’s ongoing water issues.
COMPLETE CALAMITY: Embarrassing state of Douglas Shire water supply again exposed for all to see
22/1/24 Michael Warren: https://www.newsport.com.au/articles-archive/2024/january/complete-calamity-embarrassing-state-of-douglas-shire-water-supply-again-exposed-for-all-to-see
UPDATED: 12.01PM, Monday, 22/1
Douglas Shire Council just released a statement regarding the current water issue. It read:
Continuous heavy rainfall has caused high turbidity at the water intakes, affecting the performance of water treatment plants at Mossman, Whyanbeel and Wonga.
Last night Council was forced to turn off water supply to Port Douglas following a severe drop in water reservoir levels. Council is working to increase the treated water reservoirs to a level which allows the water supply to be turned back on.
“Staff are working hard to find short and long-term solutions to this current supply issue,” Council said in its prepared statement just moments ago.
“We realise this is a challenging time for both residents, visitors and businesses but we ask for your patience while we get the water running again.”
Council said it hoped Whyanbeel reservoir was at a sufficient level by midday today for water to be sent slowly through to Wonga, Rocky Point and Miallo residents.
The ongoing status of Douglas Shire water supply and accessibility has reached embarrassingly calamity proportions with access either turned off or reduced across the Douglas Shire over the past 24-48 hours.
The ongoing water crisis across the Shire has been exacerbated by Douglas Shire residents’ frustration of the perceived ineffective, non-transparent messaging style of Douglas Shire Council.
Many residents took to social media last night to query why the Shire continues to have water issues that leads to snap water restrictions or situations and scenarios that sees access to drinking water immediately turned off, with little to no notice.
“The water supply to Port Douglas will be turned off shortly until further notice,” Council said in a last minute, late night statement 13 hours ago.
“A dramatic drop in the reservoir level a short time ago suggests there might be a major leak in the pipeline.
“We’ll continue to keep you updated on the Port Douglas supply, and developments across the broader pipeline network, including Mossman, Whyanbeel and Wonga.”
This morning just a few hours ago Council released a further statement about the embarrassing water calamity across the Shire.
“Whyanbeel Water Treatment Plant is producing at the moment,” the statement started.
“We are aiming to have the reservoir at 35% before turning water on to Wonga, Rocky Point and Miallo.
“The Mossman Water Treatment Plant was turned off overnight due to turbidity and we will try to turn the plant back on this morning.
“There is no ETA for turning the water back on in Port Douglas but engineers will be on site today to find a temporary solution while a permanent solution is found.
“We appreciate this is a difficult time for everyone. We’ll be providing updates as soon as new information comes to hand.”
Instead Council instructed residents at Wonga and Port Douglas to get bottled water at Wonga State School and Douglas Community Hall.
It’s one thing to have no water, but Douglas Shire residents are collectively fed up and understandably frustrated about the lack of notice regarding water being turned off, and the state of the Council run Douglas Dashboard.
Council encourages residents to check it for the latest information, but when they do – the information is usually inaccurate, outdated and not applicable to the current situation. Another frustration was that local residents received texts or information about the water being turned off, after it had been done, meaning some residents couldn’t get last minute supplies together.
As is stands, there is a disaster meeting happening this very moment where the issue of local water availability is currently being discussed.
Douglas Shire Councillors’ frustration has reached fever pitch regarding the water situation with many lamenting the lack of information they have received from within Council about why, once again, locals are being subjected to water issues.
The ongoing poor state of Douglas Shire water infrustrature has continued to be in the spotlight following last December’s Ex Tropical Cyclone and the ensuing heavy rain event.
Since then the local system has been plagued by breakages, blocked pipes and other issues which have caused snap closures and residents’ access to their water.
No more was this clearly demonstrated then last night where some locals received a random late night email telling them to fill up water containers as soon as possible.
Under the headline emergency Alert for Port Douglas, Craiglie and Mowbray locals received an email at 9.21pm last night from QFES.
It read: An Emergency Alert (Watch and Act) has been issued from the Douglas Shire Council. Increased rainfall has caused unexpected water production issues resulting in loss of water services, which is occurring now. People in Port Douglas, Craiglie and Mowbray will be impacted. You need to fill water containers now.
Over the weekend Newsport received copious amounts of emails from bewildered and angry readers who expressed their frustration that once again their access to water had been severely limited or turned off altogether with little to no notice.
Newsport understands an expert team from Brisbane is being sent up to assess the Douglas Shire water situation. To further complicate the matter DSC CEO Rachel Brophy is currently in Degarra and not on the ground locally to directly address the issue.
Newsport understands a lack of maintenance and aging infrastructure are two reasons behind the Shire’s ongoing water issues.
After boiling water for three weeks, Brungle residents can again drink from the tap
Jan 23 2024: https://regionriverina.com.au/after-boiling-water-for-three-weeks-brungle-residents-can-again-drink-from-the-tap/51140/
The Boil Water Notice in place in the village of Brungle since 29 December, 2023, has now been lifted.
After Snowy Valleys Council consulted with NSW Health, the water in the Brungle reticulation was deemed safe to drink from Friday (19 January).
The council worked with NSW Health and the state’s Department of Planning and Environment water inspectors to resolve the problems with the water-treatment plant, which included electrical issues and plant equipment failure.
The delay in repair was attributed to business closures over the Christmas period.
Faulty equipment has been replaced and additional water quality monitoring and intensive flushing of the water supply network have been carried out, along with the normal operational monitoring of the water supply.
Water samples were also sent for microbial analysis and the results were shared with NSW Health.
Yass, Boorowa residents spend thousands on bottled water despite election promises to fix problem
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-12-12/yass-boorowa-residents-buy-bottled-water-health-concerns/ Dec 12 2023
A short drive from the nation’s capital, a water supply described as smelling like “rotten socks” is forcing residents to spend thousands of dollars a year on bottled water.
But despite the upgrades made to the treatment station, issues remain with the water quality.
A study conducted by Yass Valley Council found 85 per cent of survey respondents in the area did not drink tap water.
After living in the town for five years, Gail Reid believed “people shouldn’t have to put up” with the supply issues.
“It is putrid, the colour of it, the smell is like rotten socks,” Ms Reid said.
“I want my grandkids who live in Yass to be able to drink water and not have to bathe in brown water.”
Instead, Ms Reid spends $40 a week buying bottled water for cooking and drinking, which is putting increasing pressure on the retiree.
“It is not very fair for the retired people, pensioners who struggle with it day to day, they shouldn’t have to.”
New South Wales Water Minister Rose Jackson has been contacted for comment.
Health concerns
At nearby Boorowa, there are considerable concerns about the town’s water.
Before living in the small town, Angus Mitchell never had an issue with his skin.
But after nine years in the region, Mr Mitchell said his skin breaks out in rashes after showering.
“When I came here, all of a sudden I got rashes on my chest when I shower from the chlorine,” he said.
“If you can’t drink it, what’s it doing to your body when you wash?”
A report to Hilltops Council identified that the town’s treatment plant was unable to reduce hardness in the water and dissolve solids and chlorine, resulting in the supply regularly exceeding the aesthetic tests for the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG).
The study concluded that only 18 per cent of locals in Boorowa drank the tap water, with the rest relying on bottled water and rainwater.
Hilltops Council has been contacted for comment.
With the treatment plant unable to remove hardness in the water, residents have reported having to replace appliances less than two years after purchasing them.
Resident Leanne Corcoran said, like many in the town, it had cost her hundreds of dollars to regularly replace pipes and appliances destroyed by the water.
“Hot water systems go on a regular basis because of the chemicals in the water, the town water just corrodes the system.
“It is pretty third world considering we are so close to Sydney and Canberra.”
Guidelines and data
A study by the Australian National University (ANU) found more than 400 regional and remote communities did not have access to good quality drinking water across the country.
The study assessed water quality performance against the ADWG.
According to Paul Wyrwoll at the ANU Institute for Water Futures, more than 620,000 people’s town water failed in the ADWG’s aesthetic tests, which assesses taste, smell, and colour.
Dr Wyrwoll said while this did not necessarily pose an immediate risk to residents’ health, it did raise concerns over the livability of regional towns affected particularly along the Darling River.
“There is a whole range of issues in terms of stress and anxiety,” Dr Wyrwoll said.
“Households simply don’t trust the water coming out of their tap. They are afraid to bathe their children or drink the water.”
Dr Wyrwoll said in NSW there was no requirement for water services to provide public reports, resulting in shortfalls with how drinking water quality data was collected.
“We don’t have any national data water collection system, and there are big gaps in monitoring and reporting,” he said.
“That means for 1.2 million people living in regional NSW, they don’t know what’s in their tap water.”
Salisbury East (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Salisbury East (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 75ug/L (max), 51ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2022/23: Burton (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 74ug/L (max), 53.33ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Since bromodichloromethane was listed in the Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens, additional studies in rats have been identified. Administration of bromodichloromethane in the drinking water increased the combined incidence of benign and malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma) in males (George et al. 2002) and caused benign liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma) in females (Tumasonis et al. 1987).
Cancer Studies in Humans
The data available from epidemiological studies are inadequate to evaluate the relationship between human cancer and exposure specifically to bromodichloromethane. Several epidemiological studies indicated a possible association between ingestion of chlorinated drinking water (which typically contains bromodichloromethane) and increased risk of
cancer in humans, but these studies could not provide information on whether any observed effects were due to bromodichloromethane or to one or more of the hundreds of other disinfection by-products also present in chlorinated water (ATSDR 1989).” (1)
2022/23 Burton (South Australia) Chloropicrin
2022/23: Burton (South Australia) Chloropicrin 1.3ug/L (max), 0.65ug/L (av.)
No Guideline level for Chloropicrin
Chloropicrin is formed in water by the reaction of chlorine with humic acids, amino acids,
and nitrophenols. The presence of nitrates increases the amount formed (6). Chloropicrin has
been detected in drinking-water; however, in the presence of reducing agents, it is converted
into chloroform
2022/23: Tranmere (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 86ug/L (max), 64.67ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2022/23: Pooraka (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 81ug/L (max), 54.83ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Erindale (South Australia) – Total Haloacetic Acids
16/3/23: Erindale (South Australia) Total Haloacetic Acids 0.141mg/L (max), 0.0895mg/L (av. 2022/23)
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
Erindale (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Erindale (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 79ug/L (max), 64.83ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Campbelltown (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Campbelltown (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 92ug/L (max), 64.25ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Woodcroft (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Woodcroft (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 74ug/L (max), 62.25ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
West Richmond (South Australia) – Total Haloacetic Acids
27/3/23: West Richmond (South Australia) Total Haloacetic Acids 0.119mg/L (max), (av. 0.111mg/L 2022/23).
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
West Richmond (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: West Richmond (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 84ug/L (max), 61.83ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2022/23 West Richmond (South Australia) Chloropicrin
2022/23: West Richmond (South Australia) Chloropicrin 1.1ug/L (max), 0.55ug/L (av.)
No Guideline level for Chloropicrin
Chloropicrin is formed in water by the reaction of chlorine with humic acids, amino acids,
and nitrophenols. The presence of nitrates increases the amount formed (6). Chloropicrin has
been detected in drinking-water; however, in the presence of reducing agents, it is converted
into chloroform
Trott Park (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Trott Park (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 87ug/L (max), 65.42ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Seacombe Park (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Seacombe Gardens (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 75ug/L (max), 60.25ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Port Noarlunga (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Port Noarlunga (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 91ug/L (max), 69.17ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Mitchell Park (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Mitchell Park (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 83ug/L (max), 61.5ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Hallett Cove (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Hallett Cove (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 76ug/L (max), 58.58ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2/11/22: Glenelg (South Australia). E.coli 1 CFU/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Glenelg (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Glenelg (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 79ug/L (max), 56.65ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Seaford Rise (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Seaford Rise (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 95ug/L (max), 72.08ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Seaford Rise (South Australia) – Haloacetonitriles (Bromochloroacetonitrile) >10ug/L
1/3/23: Seaford Rise (South Australia) – Bromochloroacetonitrile 10.2ug/L (max)
“GUIDELINE
Data are inadequate to set guideline values for haloacetonitriles in drinking water
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Haloacetonitriles are formed from organic precursors during chlorination or chloramination of drinking water. Concentrations of dihaloacetonitriles reported overseas range up to 0.04 mg/L but are typically less than 0.003 mg/L. Concentrations of trichloroacetonitrile are less than 0.001 mg/L.
Trichloroacetonitrile has been used as an insecticide. No data are available on uses for the other haloacetonitriles.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
No data are available on concentrations of haloacetonitriles in Australian drinking waters”. ADWG 2011
2022/23: McLaren Vale (South Australia) Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.51mg/L (max), 0.35mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
McLaren Vale (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: McLaren Vale (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 87ug/L (max), 64.33ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2022/23: McLaren Vale (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2022/23: McLaren Vale (South Australia) pH 8.99 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2022/23: Caltowie (South Australia) Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.52mg/L (max), 0.28mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
Westbourne Park (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Westbourne Park (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 89ug/L (max), 62.92ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Westbourne Park (South Australia) – Chloroketones
27/6/23: Westbourne Park (South Australia): 1 1-dichloropropan-2-one 1.9ug/L
“GUIDELINE Data are inadequate to set guideline values for chloroketones in drinking water. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The chloroketones are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between naturally occurring organic matter and chlorine. No data are available on other sources or uses for these compounds. Concentrations of chloroketones in drinking water reported overseas are very low and are estimated at less than 0.01 mg/L.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER In major Australian reticulated supplies 1,1,1-trichloropropanone has been recorded in concentrations up to 0.02 mg/L, but it is usually below the limit of determination of 0.0005 mg/L. No data are available for other chloroketones.
LIMITING FORMATION IN DRINKING WATER The presence of chloroketones in drinking water can be minimised by removing naturally occurring organic matter from the source water, by reducing the amount of chlorine added, or by the use of alternative disinfectants.” 2011 ADWG
Montrose (Victoria) Taste and Odour, Ethyl Benzene, Xylene
14 July 2022, Montrose water sampling locality (WQZ 56)
On 14 July 2022, Montrose High Level Reservoir was returned to service following maintenance. Over the next 6 days, Yarra Valley Water received widespread water quality complaints relating to taste and odour. Customers described the water as having a chemical taste and odour.
Investigations determined that the water was imparted with a taste and odour due to chemicals leaching from a new internal coating that was applied as part of maintenance. There is no risk to public health; all health guidelines as specified in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines were met. The results for Ethylbenzene and Total Xylene were slightly above the aesthetic limit for these parameters, hence the chemical taste and odour in the water.
Yarra Valley Water verbally informed the Department of Health of the complaints on 18 July 2022. Section 22 report was submitted on 19 July 2022. The Department of Health were informed that the reservoir was returned to service on 3 October 2022 after extensive cleaning. Subsequent water samples indicated that there was a minor exceedance in aesthetic quality.
A decision was made to keep the reservoir in service due to water supply risks as a result of extreme weather, which the Department of Health were engaged for consultation on 12 October 2022. A communication plan was developed to manage potential widespread complaints. Between 14 July to 28 October 2022, Yarra Valley Water received 46 taste and
odour complaints. The reservoir was taken offline again on 31 October 2022. After further
cleaning, the reservoir was returned to service on 16 November 2022. Yarra Valley Water provided continuous updates to the Department of Health during this period.
2022/2023: Tullamarine (Vic) – Iron 0.39mg/L (max), 0.07mg/L (mean/av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Australian Drinking Water Guideline THM’s 0.25ug/L
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Nyah – Victoria – Cyanide
2022/23: Nyah (Victoria) 0.041mg/L (highest level) (51.25% of Australian Guideline)
Based on health considerations, the concentration of cyanide in drinking water should not
exceed 0.08 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Cyanide can be present in drinking water through the contamination of source water, or through the natural decomposition of some plants that synthesise cyanoglycosides. Some microorganisms, such as the cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans and the bacterium Chromobacterium violaceum, produce free cyanide. In uncontaminated water sources, free cyanide concentrations are usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Sodium cyanide is used in the extraction of gold and silver from low-grade ores. It is also used in the electroplating, steel and chemical industries. Some foods can contain quite high concentrations of cyanide. Green almonds and improperly treated cassava are of particular concern.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
In major Australian reticulated supplies cyanide concentrations range up to 0.05 mg/L, with typical concentrations usually less than 0.02 mg/L.
TREATMENT OF DRINKING WATER
There are no published reports on methods for the removal of cyanide from drinking water. Chlorine gas or hypochlorite will react with cyanide to form cyanate. Ozone is also an effective oxidant.
HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
Cyanide is highly toxic. It is rapidly absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and metabolised to thiocyanate. In humans, long-term consumption of improperly prepared cassava in the tropics has been linked with effects on the thyroid gland and particularly the nervous system. Cyanide may deplete vitamin B12 and result in a deficiency that can cause goitre and cretinism. People most at risk are those with a nutritionally inadequate diet…. ADWG 2011
2022/23 – Lake Boga (Victoria) – Trihalomethanes 0.25ug/L (max), 0.11mg/L (av.)
Australian Drinking Water Guideline THM’s 0.25ug/L
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
2022/23 Lake Boga (Victoria) – Trichloroacetic Acid
2022/23 Lake Boga (Victoria) – Trichloroacetic Acid 0.1mg/L, 0.026mg/L (av.)
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
2022/23 – Sebastian (Victoria) – Turbidity 5.5NTU (max), 0.1NTU (Maximum 95th Percentile of turbidity results in any 12 months (NTU))
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Sebastian (Vic) – Iron
2022/2023: Sebastian (Vic) – Iron 0.6mg/L (max), 0.06mg/L (mean/av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2022/23 – Highton (Victoria) – Turbidity 8.2NTU (max), 0.3NTU (Maximum 95th Percentile of turbidity results in any 12 months (NTU))
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
BHP : Leinster Water Services Licence WL52 Customer Charter
October 30, 2023 at 02:03 am EDT
Leinster Drinking Water and Wastewater Services
BHP Nickel West, Western Australia
September 2023
Introduction
BHP provides drinking water and wastewater services to customers in the town of Leinster, Western Australia.
The purpose of this Customer Charter is to provide customers with a clear understanding of the standards of service you can expect from BHP, your responsibilities as a customer, and our obligations in providing our services to you.
Customers covered by the Charter
This charter covers customers in Leinster that receive:
A supply of drinking water
Wastewater (sewerage) services
Our Obligations
BHP will:
Maintain all water supply and wastewater infrastructure to the boundary agreed by BHP and you
Make every effort to minimise interruption to your water supply and wastewater services
Provide a minimum three days’ notice of planned service interruptions
Restore service interruptions as soon as practicable
Water Supply
BHP will supply a sufficient volume of drinking water to meet the essential needs of the Site and Town occupants.
BHP aims to supply drinking water that is compliant with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (2011).
High nitrate concentrations in the Leinster drinking water means that this water is unsuitable for pregnant women and children under three months of age to consume. Water treated using reverse osmosis to reduce nitrate concentrations to acceptable levels can be collected from the Medical Centre or Camp Mess.
Small reverse osmosis units are also available in the Leinster Fly-inFly-out Village for use by occupants.
Wastewater Services
BHP is committed to environmentally sound practices in the treatment and disposal of wastewater. BHP will collect, treat and dispose of residential wastewater from each customer’s premises and public amenities.
BHP does not provide commercial or industrial wastewater services.
Conditions of Supply
Except in an emergency, BHP will provide prior notification of the need to enter your property or do works that will interrupt your services.
BHP may discontinue the supply of water to your connection if:
You do not comply with your obligations under this Customer Charter
There is a public health, safety or environmental risk to our services from your connection (e.g. back flow or unauthorised waste discharge)
Your Obligations
Customers shall:
Not tamper with our water supply and wastewater infrastructure
Not dispose of harmful substances, rubbish and foreign objects (eg. litter, cleaning products, nappies, food scraps, cooking oils and grease, chemicals) to the wastewater system
Contact us if you experience a significant change in water flow, quality or pressure or have issues with wastewater blockages and/or spills
Page 1 of 2
Customer Charter
Leinster Drinking Water and Wastewater Services
BHP Nickel West, Western Australia
September 2023
Fees and Charges
No fees and charges will be applied for the supply of drinking water or wastewater services to the boundary agreed by BHP and you.
Information and privacy
We will treat your personal information in accordance with all applicable laws.
We may be required to provide relevant information to authorities in the event that you are under investigation for the illegal use of any services or any other crime.
Customer Enquiries, Suggestions and Complaints
If you have any enquiries, suggestions or complaints on the way we deliver our services, please contact BHP by phoning (08) 9026 5227 between 9 am and 4 pm on business days or emailing (niwnlntownmaintenance@bhp.com).
We aim to reply to you as soon as possible and in any event within 10 business days.
Alternatively you the customer are able to engage the Energy and Water Ombudsmen to assist in Complaint resolution/appeal or review by contacting using the FREECALL phone number 1800 757 004.
Please contact us by phoning (08) 9026 5227 between 9 am and 4 pm on business days or emailing (niwnlntownmaintenance@bhp.com) if you require access to additional resources or support in accessing information or general enquiries, including support for:
Customers with hearing / speech impairment, or if interpreter services are required;
Access to a large-print version of any BHP publicly available information
Service Faults and Emergencies
Faults with the water supply and wastewater systems involving significant service outages or possible damage to property are to be reported immediately to BHP Facilities Management by phoning (08) 9026 5227.
After consulting NSW Health, Clarence Valley Council advises all residents in Glenreagh that tap water is now safe to drink.
This applies immediately.
Testing confirms the water supply system has been filled with freshly treated water that is safe.
There is no longer a public health concern over the quality of drinking water, and it is now considered safe for all typical uses including drinking, preparing food and beverages, personal washing, dishwashing, laundry purposes and flushing toilets.
Update – BOIL WATER ALERT – Village of Glenreagh
Published on 12 October 2023
Update – 12 October 2023
What we know:
The filtration plant has not captured the extremely fine particles in the source water.
Due to increased turbidity in the drinking water for Glenreagh, a precautionary Boiled Water Alert has been issued.
The disinfection treatment units are functioning providing Ultra Violet and Chlorine disinfection.
Laboratory results confirm no E coli detection.
What we don’t know:
When the Boil Water Alert will be lifted
What we are doing:
Daily water samples being collected and sent to the laboratory.
Investigations into alternate filtration options underway with the filtration plant supplier.
What we want you to do:
Water used for drinking or food preparation should be brought to a rolling boil to make it safe. Kettles with automatic shut off switches can do this. Water should then be allowed to cool and stored in a clean container with a lid and refrigerated.
Everyone, particularly people caring for young children, should be careful to avoid scalding, when you are heating and then cooling the water.
Bottled water or cool boiled water should be used for drinking, washing uncooked food (e.g. salad vegetables and fruit), making ice, cleaning teeth, gargling and pet’s drinking water.
Dishes should be washed in hot soapy water or in a dishwasher.
Children should take bottled water or cool boiled water to school/childcare.
31/7/23: Tweed Shire Council has downgraded the blue-green algae alert at Clarrie Hall Dam from amber to green.
While testing by the NATA-accredited Tweed Laboratory Centre has confirmed algae levels in dam water have decreased, algae species capable of producing toxins continue to be detected.
Council’s Water and Wastewater Operations Manager Brie Jowett said while it was good news the blue-green algae alert had been downgraded, untreated water in Clarrie Hall Dam and its upstream and downstream tributaries might still be harmful to humans and animals.
“Council always takes a cautionary approach with blue-green algae – we continue to advise residents and visitors not to come into contact with dam water, not to eat fish from the dam and to keep animals away,” Mrs Jowett said.
“Never drink untreated dam or river water at any time. Don’t water livestock and other animals with untreated water from the dam and its upstream and downstream tributaries.
“If you come into contact with the algae, rinse it off with fresh water and seek medical advice if symptoms appear.”
Blue-green algae warning signs remain in place at public access points to the dam, alerting the public to the risks.
Affected water appears to have a green paint-like scum on the water, near the edges, or greenish clumps throughout the water. It can have a musty odour.
Council issued a green alert for blue-green algae at the dam in November 2022 and raised the alert to amber in May 2023.
Mrs Jowett said the Tweed’s tap water remained safe.
“Due to our robust water treatment processes, tap water throughout the Tweed remains safe to drink and bathe in,” Mrs Jowett said.
“The processes remove algae and potential toxins, alongside taste and odour compounds, ensuring our tap water continues to be treated to a standard that is well within Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.”
Lab scientists will continue to test untreated dam water twice a week.
Untreated river water that supplies the Tweed’s water treatment plants at Uki, Bray Park and Tyalgum is being tested weekly.
On 2 March 2021 routine lab sampling detected 0.275mg/L THMs at Ponti Road Reservoir. This was a result of the increase in sodium hypochlorite dose required for prechlorination for manganese during the discoloration event (DWI-506-21-08862). Once pre-chlorination had
been established, sodium hypochlorite dose was reduced and THMs (and chlorates) have returned to normal levels in the network. Pre-chlorination of the filters has resulted in a net reduction of chlorine dose across the plant which has reduced DBP concentrations overall.
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
2021 Douglas Water Treatment Plant – Townsville (Qld) Chlorates
On 9 February 2021 chlorates above DWQMP targets were detected at Douglas WTP and in the network. Chlorates above DWQMP targets were detected for much of March. This was the same body of water moving through the system. This was due to the high initial dosing of sodium hypochlorite on module one and two filters to establish a coated media process for the removal of soluble manganese. The issue was compounded by the hot weather and the inability to flush water due to water production issues. Once the coated media process was established the sodium hypochlorite dose pre-filter was significantly reduced and a corresponding decrease in chlorate concentration occurred. Ongoing management of sodium hypochlorite stock in Townsville occurs as per the DWQMP.
DWI-506-21-08862 – Townsville DWS – Cyanobacteria. Event resulting in discoloured water and reduced supply Cyanobacteria have been detected in RRD since 2018. Cell numbers (and biovolume) have been increasing each summer since. Numbers increased significantly (>120,000 cells/ml) in January and February and diatoms numbers also increased significantly (>80,000 cells/ml). This caused filter binding at Douglas WTP and water production decreased from the 30 January 2021. It also caused filter breakthrough which resulted in a yellow
hue to the treated water. In RRD the cyanobacteria experienced a die off phase which dropped dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the dam at all levels in the profile. As low DO was at all offtake layers this low DO water was taken into the WTP. This low DO water was high in soluble manganese (low DO enables soluble manganese to be released from the sediments in the bottom of the dam). This soluble manganese passed through the filters and resolubilised to total manganese at the chlorination step in the clear water storages.
Pre-chlorination was added to the filters in module 1 and module 2. This effectively removed the manganese, improved cyanobacterial cell removal, reduced net sodium hypochlorite load on the WTP and improved DO across the WTP. The initial high sodium hypochlorite dose required increased Disinfection By-Product (DBP) formation in the short term but has since reduced due to the reduced sodium hypochlorite dose required for pre-chlorination and the overall net chlorine use across the plant.
Pre-chlorination remains in place and is now prior to filtration on all modules. Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) dosing is in place to mitigate toxin risk if required. Construction of clarifiers pre–direct filtration modules has begun with a construction end date of
December 2022. A Catchment Management Plan is being developed.
The raw water also contains low background concentrations of fluoride. The specific
source of the fluoride is unknown. Relatively high concentrations of iron and
manganese have also been observed in the raw water. During a flood event in April
2017 raw water with total iron concentrations of up to 14 mg/L were recorded.
Similarly, February 2021 to June 2021 recorded total manganese concentrations
above 7 mg/L.
Low levels of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin were detected during a
bloom of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in late 2014. This toxin-producing species of
cyanobacteria is usually detected during prolonged periods of low raw water turbidity
in late winter and spring. Low levels of the potentially toxic Anabaena circinalis and
Microcystis aeruginosa are also detected usually from early spring.
27/4/22: Mount Bassett Reservoir (Queensland) – Lead
Routine monitoring of the Mount Bassett Reservoir returned a lead result above the ADWG health guideline limit of 0.01 mg/L. Downstream results from Slade Point on the same day return a compliant result for lead, indicating it was a localised incident. Follow-up sampling on 6 May 2022, from two alternative sample points (Emergency Shower at the Reservoir and the top of the reservoir tank) did not record any exceedances. An inspection of the sample tap pipework identified that there was a brass tapping band connected to the off take connection from the water main to the sample tap. The age of this tapping band is unknown. It is believed that the high lead reading is most likely caused by of degradation of the sample tap off take connection. This has been removed and a new off take was established on an
alternative main pipe.
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Routine drinking water monitoring taken on at the Laguna Quays sample point within the Midge Point Water Supply Scheme (WSS) reticulation network returned a manganese result that breached the ADWG health guideline. Other samples collected on the day of the incident from within the Midge Point WSS and Reservoir were within the ADWG health guidelines, indicating the incident was localised to the Laguna Quays section. In response to the incident, the balance tank at the Midge Point facility was drained and flushed out to removed a build up of sediment which was identified at the bottom of the tank. This sediment is believed to be a potential source of manganese in the reticulation network.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Dec 15 2020: E. coli was detected in a sample collected from the Cape Hillsborough reticulation sample point as part of the routine drinking water verification monitoring program. It is believed the E. coli detection was due to in field contamination with a frog and gecko excrement identified within the sample tap box at the time of sample collection. In response to this incident sterilisation practices detailed in in the Drinking Water Sampling procedure were reviewed and updated.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
13/8/20: Manganese – Nicholls
In response to a customer enquiry of discoloured water, sampling results returned an elevated level of manganese from a nearby hydrant. Samples were also taken at the customer’s front garden tap and an additional upstream hydrant at the same time. Both these samples returned low total manganese levels, well within the health guideline limit. Icon Water resolved the level through flushing water from the main.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
12/9/20 Manganese – Stromlo District. A result from the routine monitoring program, an elevated level of manganese was detected at a commercial property. From various checks it was determined that the lack of water use during the COVID-19 period had allowed the metal to accumulate. The levels were resolved through flushing water through the service pipes.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
The Orroral Valley fire in January and February 2020 impacted the Namadgi National Park (comprising the southern region of the Cotter catchment including Corin and Bendora water supply reservoirs). 1,951 hectares of Corin catchment and 137 hectares of Bendora
catchment were impacted by high severity fire. A risk assessment was completed to determine the management options in February 2020 and identified that the fire had been of a high intensity and had increased risks to water quality and water treatment needs.
The Cotter catchment bushfire was followed shortly after by a high intensity rainfall event. Rainfall events following bushfires can have a significant impact on water quality, caused by increased rates of erosion, increased sediments and turbidity, and the introduction of a range of chemicals into the water supply. Rainfall following bushfires can release inorganic nutrients from burnt plant material and lead to an increase in phosphorus and other nutrients
entering waterways which can lead to future algal blooms.
To minimise impacts to the ACT and regional water supply and in response to the Cotter catchment bushfire and rainfall event, Icon Water implemented the water quality event monitoring program, installed sediment traps to reduce sediment movement in drainage lines and deployed silt curtains on Corin and Bendora reservoirs to contain ash and suspended material.
Sampling for aluminium in raw water sources shows small quantities in all bores, except for two abnormal historical results that occurred in a Macknade Combined Bore sample and a Halifax Combined Bore sample. On 21st June 2000 a sample was taken for aluminium from both the Macknade Combined Bore and the Halifax Combined Bore and the reading for aluminium was 0.8 mg/L and 0.17 mg/L respectively. These results were a large variation against the other samples taken over the period. These bores have been rehabilitated within the
past 5 years and the latest readings show low levels. Aluminium levels in the treated and reticulated water remain constant and do not show any trends, exceedances or spikes.
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Halifax (Queensland) – Chloride
Some high levels of chloride in the raw water have been recorded at Halifax that exceeds the ADWG. Halifax Bore 3 had the highest record of 590 mg/L in 2015. However, the maximum over the past 5 years was 47 indicating that the decommissioning of the Halifax system has improved raw water quality. Chloride levels for treated and reticulation water are well below the guideline.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
Halifax (Queensland) – Sodium
Historical sodium levels in raw water were slightly higher in the Halifax bores than the Macknade Bores. There were some peaks identified in Halifax Bore 3 (maximum 321 mg/L) and Halifax Bore 5 (maximum 150 mg/L). however, the maximum value was 40 mg/L in the past 5 years and is due to using Macknade bores. Sodium levels in treated and reticulated water are below the guideline and show no trends or abnormal results.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Halifax (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids.
Raw water data for the level of total dissolved solids is scattered. In general, the Halifax bores have a higher reading of total dissolved solids in the raw water. The maximum level of 1190 mg/L was recorded at Halifax Bore 3 in 2015. A maximum level of 189 mg/L was recorded since 2015 indicating that the removal of the Halifax system has been beneficial. Similar results were found in the treated and reticulated water.
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Halifax (Queensland) – Turbidity
For the past 5 years, turbidity levels in raw water are quite scattered, but the majority of the sampling shows that the turbidity in raw water falls below 5 NTU. The maximum result was 13 NTU. The maximum treated water turbidity was 4 NTU, and 2 NTU in the reticulation system. An operational procedure is planned to select raw water sources to improve overall water quality.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
In 2013 the routine testing program confirmed three Cryptosporidium detections in the
southern rural schemes (Fishery Falls, Mountain View and Bramston Beach), Boil Water
Notices were required to be issued for two of these instances.
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Low levels of lead, copper and nickel have been detected in the water supply and tapware of the Surat multipurpose health service, forcing staff to use bottled water for drinking, cooking and bathing infants.
The presence of heavy metals was discovered after a water quality audit at four facilities in the South West Hospital and Health Service, also including Quilpie and Dirranbandi MPHS and the Bollon Community Clinic.
In addition, a single tap at Roma Hospital recorded a low level of nickel that was slightly above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline for that metal.
It has been isolated, flushed and will be retested.
SWHHS acting chief executive Rebecca Greenway said the immediate health risks were minimal and the situation was being managed across the facilities.
“Although the levels of lead detected are low, they are still a little above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline of 0.01 mg/L (milligrams per litre) for lead,” Ms Greenway said.
“The levels at Quilpie and Bollon, for instance, were 0.024 mg/L. The others were even lower.
“The plumbing outlets at all four facilities where lead levels were detected have been labelled as not for use while we investigate further to determine the sources of contamination and that rectification works, if any, might be necessary.
“However, while we undertake these investigations and out of an abundance of caution because our multipurpose health services are also home to vulnerable residential aged care residents, we are now using bottled water for drinking, cooking and infant bathing at all four facilities.”
Ms Greenway said the use of water for other general washing purposes was safe as metal microparticles, such as lead, must be inhaled or ingested to present a health risk.
“Ingestion of lead can lead to health problems, with children and unborn babies more affected than adults,” she said.
“Physical contact with lead does not present a health risk.”
Ms Greenway said the water audit was undertaken in recent weeks as part of a state-wide advice from the Department of Health for all health facilities to test for heavy metals.
This follows the detection in May and June of lead in water supplies to the health facility, school, and kindergarten in the community of Yarrabah, near Cairns, as well as a health service building at Atherton Hospital.
“The quality of water supplies at all our other health facilities in the South West complied with all Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” Ms Greenway said.
Low levels of lead, copper and nickel have been detected in the water supply and tapware of the Surat multipurpose health service, forcing staff to use bottled water for drinking, cooking and bathing infants.
The presence of heavy metals was discovered after a water quality audit at four facilities in the South West Hospital and Health Service, also including Quilpie and Dirranbandi MPHS and the Bollon Community Clinic.
In addition, a single tap at Roma Hospital recorded a low level of nickel that was slightly above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline for that metal.
It has been isolated, flushed and will be retested.
SWHHS acting chief executive Rebecca Greenway said the immediate health risks were minimal and the situation was being managed across the facilities.
“Although the levels of lead detected are low, they are still a little above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline of 0.01 mg/L (milligrams per litre) for lead,” Ms Greenway said.
“The levels at Quilpie and Bollon, for instance, were 0.024 mg/L. The others were even lower.
“The plumbing outlets at all four facilities where lead levels were detected have been labelled as not for use while we investigate further to determine the sources of contamination and that rectification works, if any, might be necessary.
“However, while we undertake these investigations and out of an abundance of caution because our multipurpose health services are also home to vulnerable residential aged care residents, we are now using bottled water for drinking, cooking and infant bathing at all four facilities.”
Ms Greenway said the use of water for other general washing purposes was safe as metal microparticles, such as lead, must be inhaled or ingested to present a health risk.
“Ingestion of lead can lead to health problems, with children and unborn babies more affected than adults,” she said.
“Physical contact with lead does not present a health risk.”
Ms Greenway said the water audit was undertaken in recent weeks as part of a state-wide advice from the Department of Health for all health facilities to test for heavy metals.
This follows the detection in May and June of lead in water supplies to the health facility, school, and kindergarten in the community of Yarrabah, near Cairns, as well as a health service building at Atherton Hospital.
“The quality of water supplies at all our other health facilities in the South West complied with all Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” Ms Greenway said.
Low levels of lead, copper and nickel have been detected in the water supply and tapware of the Surat multipurpose health service, forcing staff to use bottled water for drinking, cooking and bathing infants.
The presence of heavy metals was discovered after a water quality audit at four facilities in the South West Hospital and Health Service, also including Quilpie and Dirranbandi MPHS and the Bollon Community Clinic.
In addition, a single tap at Roma Hospital recorded a low level of nickel that was slightly above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline for that metal.
It has been isolated, flushed and will be retested.
SWHHS acting chief executive Rebecca Greenway said the immediate health risks were minimal and the situation was being managed across the facilities.
“Although the levels of lead detected are low, they are still a little above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline of 0.01 mg/L (milligrams per litre) for lead,” Ms Greenway said.
“The levels at Quilpie and Bollon, for instance, were 0.024 mg/L. The others were even lower.
“The plumbing outlets at all four facilities where lead levels were detected have been labelled as not for use while we investigate further to determine the sources of contamination and that rectification works, if any, might be necessary.
“However, while we undertake these investigations and out of an abundance of caution because our multipurpose health services are also home to vulnerable residential aged care residents, we are now using bottled water for drinking, cooking and infant bathing at all four facilities.”
Ms Greenway said the use of water for other general washing purposes was safe as metal microparticles, such as lead, must be inhaled or ingested to present a health risk.
“Ingestion of lead can lead to health problems, with children and unborn babies more affected than adults,” she said.
“Physical contact with lead does not present a health risk.”
Ms Greenway said the water audit was undertaken in recent weeks as part of a state-wide advice from the Department of Health for all health facilities to test for heavy metals.
This follows the detection in May and June of lead in water supplies to the health facility, school, and kindergarten in the community of Yarrabah, near Cairns, as well as a health service building at Atherton Hospital.
“The quality of water supplies at all our other health facilities in the South West complied with all Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” Ms Greenway said.
Low levels of lead, copper and nickel have been detected in the water supply and tapware of the Surat multipurpose health service, forcing staff to use bottled water for drinking, cooking and bathing infants.
The presence of heavy metals was discovered after a water quality audit at four facilities in the South West Hospital and Health Service, also including Quilpie and Dirranbandi MPHS and the Bollon Community Clinic.
In addition, a single tap at Roma Hospital recorded a low level of nickel that was slightly above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline for that metal.
It has been isolated, flushed and will be retested.
SWHHS acting chief executive Rebecca Greenway said the immediate health risks were minimal and the situation was being managed across the facilities.
“Although the levels of lead detected are low, they are still a little above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline of 0.01 mg/L (milligrams per litre) for lead,” Ms Greenway said.
“The levels at Quilpie and Bollon, for instance, were 0.024 mg/L. The others were even lower.
“The plumbing outlets at all four facilities where lead levels were detected have been labelled as not for use while we investigate further to determine the sources of contamination and that rectification works, if any, might be necessary.
“However, while we undertake these investigations and out of an abundance of caution because our multipurpose health services are also home to vulnerable residential aged care residents, we are now using bottled water for drinking, cooking and infant bathing at all four facilities.”
Ms Greenway said the use of water for other general washing purposes was safe as metal microparticles, such as lead, must be inhaled or ingested to present a health risk.
“Ingestion of lead can lead to health problems, with children and unborn babies more affected than adults,” she said.
“Physical contact with lead does not present a health risk.”
Ms Greenway said the water audit was undertaken in recent weeks as part of a state-wide advice from the Department of Health for all health facilities to test for heavy metals.
This follows the detection in May and June of lead in water supplies to the health facility, school, and kindergarten in the community of Yarrabah, near Cairns, as well as a health service building at Atherton Hospital.
“The quality of water supplies at all our other health facilities in the South West complied with all Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” Ms Greenway said.
Low levels of lead, copper and nickel have been detected in the water supply and tapware of the Surat multipurpose health service, forcing staff to use bottled water for drinking, cooking and bathing infants.
The presence of heavy metals was discovered after a water quality audit at four facilities in the South West Hospital and Health Service, also including Quilpie and Dirranbandi MPHS and the Bollon Community Clinic.
In addition, a single tap at Roma Hospital recorded a low level of nickel that was slightly above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline for that metal.
It has been isolated, flushed and will be retested.
SWHHS acting chief executive Rebecca Greenway said the immediate health risks were minimal and the situation was being managed across the facilities.
“Although the levels of lead detected are low, they are still a little above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline of 0.01 mg/L (milligrams per litre) for lead,” Ms Greenway said.
“The levels at Quilpie and Bollon, for instance, were 0.024 mg/L. The others were even lower.
“The plumbing outlets at all four facilities where lead levels were detected have been labelled as not for use while we investigate further to determine the sources of contamination and that rectification works, if any, might be necessary.
“However, while we undertake these investigations and out of an abundance of caution because our multipurpose health services are also home to vulnerable residential aged care residents, we are now using bottled water for drinking, cooking and infant bathing at all four facilities.”
Ms Greenway said the use of water for other general washing purposes was safe as metal microparticles, such as lead, must be inhaled or ingested to present a health risk.
“Ingestion of lead can lead to health problems, with children and unborn babies more affected than adults,” she said.
“Physical contact with lead does not present a health risk.”
Ms Greenway said the water audit was undertaken in recent weeks as part of a state-wide advice from the Department of Health for all health facilities to test for heavy metals.
This follows the detection in May and June of lead in water supplies to the health facility, school, and kindergarten in the community of Yarrabah, near Cairns, as well as a health service building at Atherton Hospital.
“The quality of water supplies at all our other health facilities in the South West complied with all Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” Ms Greenway said.
The deaths of more than 100,000 fish at the Salmon Ponds trout hatchery in Tasmania’s south are being investigated.
A spokesperson from Primary Industries (DPIPWE) has confirmed 105,000 brown trout fry, 12,000 rainbow trout fry, 43 brook trout broodstock and 25 display fish were lost from the Salmon Ponds grounds.
Ken Orr from the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party visited the ponds last Wednesday soon after the reports of the fish kill at the operation near the Plenty River.
“The ponds themselves had changed colour to a dirty brown and the smell was very evident,” he said.
“The Salmon Ponds are right on the river, and it’s a flow-through system, the water comes out of the Plenty River and through the Salmon Ponds, and back into the river.
“I went down to the river to have a look, and it was filthy and a greasy substance on the water, foam on the water.
“There were fish struggling for oxygen, whatever it was it was reducing the dissolved oxygen levels in the water and creating an issue for the fish.”
EPA searching for ‘substance’ source
Tasmania’s Environment Protection Authority (EPA) was notified by the Inland Fisheries Service (IFS) of the fish kill on Wednesday afternoon.
EPA Director Wes Ford said as a result of the report, officers investigated further upstream.
“EPA officers identified that there had been a discharge of wastewater from the composting facility upstream of the salmon ponds,” he said.
“As a result of that, I issued an order for the composting facility to clean up that discharge of wastewater, and we are currently investigating the link between that discharge and the mortality of the trout in the salmon ponds.”
The upstream composting facility is authorised to receive liquid waste from a number of sources including Norske Skog paper sludge, pine bark and green waste.
Mr Ford said the composting operation also takes bio-solids, which is human sewage sludge.
“There are a number of services providers that are authorised to discharge their liquid waste into compost facilities,” he said.
“Waste from a range of different processing facilities in the primary industry sector in the state, that could be abattoirs, dairies, fish processing.
“It appears in this case the wastewater has been irrigated or sprayed onto some paddocks, and held in some bunded areas where one of the bunding areas appears to have ruptured or broken and the water then flowed into the river.”
The operator of the composting facility is in the process of ploughing the remaining wastewater into his paddock.
“I need to determine whether or not there have been any breaches of the legislation or the permit conditions,” Mr Ford said.
Despite being called the Salmon Ponds, most of the fish at the heritage hatchery are trout, with the first rainbow and brown trout in the Southern Hemisphere raised there in 1864.
For more than 100 years, the site has stocked lakes and dams around the state with over one million trout every year, but next season could be impacted by the death of some of these fish.
Bottled water brought in
Roderick Blair has lived on a property alongside the Plenty River for the past 22 years.
He received a call from a neighbour upstream to warn him of the pollutant.
“He called me at about two o’clock and said there was some sewage sludge heading your way, a plume of sewage sludge that they’d seen in the river,” he said.
“When I got home at five, the water at the bridge was a milky, coffee colour, it stank, had an odour of sewage.”
While there has been no official water alert, Mr Blair’s drinking water supply comes from the river so he said he had to buy bottled water.
He then filled up some drums at his parents’ house for livestock to drink.
“There was about half a dozen galaxias [fish] going along the edge of the riverbank looking for oxygen, they were coming up to the surface gasping,” Mr Blair said.
“It’s just disappointing that it happens in this day and age.
“It shouldn’t be happening in pristine water systems like it is in the Plenty River which leads into the Derwent River, which is above the Hobart water intake — it’s just ridiculous.”
‘Safe supply of water’ for drinking
The state’s water authority said about one per cent of the flow in the Derwent River is used for drinking water, so any small spills from the upper catchments is highly diluted by the river flows.
TasWater Department Manager Regional Services, Brendan Hanigan said the Bryn Estyn water treatment plant used chlorine dosing as the final disinfection process
“This system provides protection to ensure a safe supply of water for the customers of the greater Hobart area,” he said.
“We are unaware of any notification of a recent incident.
“In the event of any incident we work closely with the EPA on any issues that could potentially pose a risk to drinking water.”
River health ‘really important’
Concerns have also been raised about the health of the insect life, platypus, wild fish and eels in the river.
Elizabeth Cooper has lived on a property alongside the river for about 45 years and her 2,000 sheep and 200 head of cattle usually consume the water.
She said the river was generally very clear and you can “see the bottom.”
“The health of our river is really important for us for our long term management and we’ve looked after that river ever since we’ve been on that property,” she said.
“It has got a really healthy population of platypus, and native species of fish, and it’s important that we don’t wreck our environment.”
EPA investigating cause of pollution
Inland Fisheries Service (IFS), which manages the Salmon Ponds hatchery, reported an incident of polluted water to the EPA on Wednesday.
The EPA collected samples at the site and is continuing investigations.
Mr Orr said he had been calling for water sampling in the Plenty River for over a year, and described the incident as an “accident waiting to happen”.
“We can’t point the finger too much at the moment as to where this pollution occurred from, but we need some risk mitigation taking place on that river to protect this heritage site,” he said.
The EPA has asked DPIPWE to undertake a river health assessment.
The operator of the composting facility has been contacted for comment.
Tasmanian business owner Tim Jenkins in court over Plenty River pollution that caused mass fish kill
A Tasmanian business owner has appeared in court for the first time after his company was charged with spilling waste material into the Plenty River, causing a significant fish kill.
In September 2020, the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) served Jenkins Hire Pty Ltd — which operates a composting and waste storage facility in Plenty, north of Hobart — with a notice alleging it was responsible for pollutants entering a nearby waterway, killing fish in the river and at nearby properties which draw water from it.
An EPA and Department of Primary Industries (DPIPWE) investigation found pollutants in the river resulted in the deaths of 100,000 brown trout fry, 12,000 rainbow trout fry, 43 brook trout broodstock and 23 display fish at the Salmon Ponds trout hatchery, which is a few kilometres downstream from Jenkins Hire.
In its notice to the company, the EPA also raised concerns that some of the waste material at Jenkins Hire’s property had entered the soil, which risked further waste material entering the river during a rain event.
In total, the business — represented in court by owner Timothy Jenkins — is alleged to have committed 11 breaches of the Environmental Management and Pollution Control Act.
Those charges include polluting the environment intentionally or recklessly, and storing controlled waste in such a manner that it is reasonably likely it will escape into the environment.
The company is also facing allegations it stored controlled waste without authority, and has been using land for the disposal of general waste without authority.
The matter will return to the Hobart Magistrates Court on March 23.
8/8/18: There was a detection of a pesticide (atrazine – 27 ug/L) above the ADWG health limit on 8 August 2018. This was the first detection of atrazine in Lake Trevallyn since sampling for pesticides began in 2015.
An error occurred with the laboratory notification process which resulted in this exceedance not being highlighted, and therefore there was no immediate resample. However, there have been no detections of atrazine in any samples since August 2018.
TasWater Annual Drinking Water Quality Report 2018-2019 Section A Summary
2021/22: Lake Barrington (Tasmania) pH 7.61 (mean)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2021/22: Huon Valley (Tasmania). Chlorine residual 7.53mg/L (max), 0.7mg/L (mean)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Huon Valley (Tasmania) – pH (alkaline)
2019/20: Huon Valley (Tasmania) pH 7.63 (mean)
2020/21: Huon Valley (Tasmania) pH 7.52 (mean)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
21/4/20: Routine sample (21/04/2020) taken from WRSTE09 (Supply) detected 1.0 MPN/100mL E. coli. Department of Health (DoH) was notified. Extensive sampling undertaken, with all
subsequent samples clear of E. coli.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2020 March – Clarence/Midway Point (Tasmania) – E.vulernis
A water sample taken on 17 March 2020 at Midway Point was positive for E. coli. Subsequent samples were clear, and no further action was required. Reported to DoH
Subsequent sample clear of E.coli The original detection was reclassified as E.vulneris#
#E.vulneris: This bacterium can colonize in the respiratory tract, genital tract, stool, and urinary tract. However, P. vulneris is most often associated with wounds and has been known to colonize open wounds of both humans and animals. This association gave the bacterium its species name, vulneris, which is Latin for wound.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.017 mg/L.”
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
2021/22: Manyallaluk (Northern Territory) Lead – Total 0.007mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Joelene Kapernick may have running water throughout her home, but she can’t drink it and says it’s not much use for anything.
The mum of four lives in Wowan, a small town in central Queensland with a population of about 200 people.
Wowan has a non-potable water supply that’s not suitable for drinking – instead, residents rely on rainwater tanks.
But in periods of drought, the tanks can run dry.
In the nine years Ms Kapernick has lived there with her family in a suburban home, she has had to truck in drinking water four times.
“It gets a bit much when we have six people living in our house, rainwater does not stretch far at all,” Ms Kapernick said.
“[Town water] is so bad. I don’t even know how much cutlery I’ve bought because it just rusts it if you try and wash up with it.
“It’s not even good for the toilet, [you should] see how many toilets are corroded around here.”
A spokesperson for the Banana Shire Council said building a desalination plant was too expensive, but the council was looking at other options to improve water quality.
Wowan is one of many small towns across rural Australia grappling with water security, though the extent of the problem is hard to quantify, a water security expert says.
Desalination plant too expensive
Fellow Wowan resident Robert Huston moved to town a couple of years ago and said it was not long before he noticed his clothes were being bleached in the wash.
“I don’t even feed it to my dogs, I give them rainwater from the tank,” Mr Huston said.
At the start of the year, he paid almost $5,000 to install a filtration system on the house so he could use the water for washing and showering.
He still doesn’t use it for drinking.
“I feel safer washing our clothes now. I don’t have to go to a laundromat,” he said.
Wowan’s bore has been moved multiple times since the town’s inception, and a council spokesperson said the council was looking at drilling a deeper bore in the next 12 months to try to improve water quality.
Residents like Ms Kapernick and Mr Huston said if quality could not be improved, then they wanted to see the cost of water dramatically reduced.
The council charges $1.96 a kilolitre for tier one supply in Wowan, and $2.38 for tier two.
However, the spokesperson said the council had to subsidise the supply as what it charged for the water did not cover the cost of extracting it.
Dylan Jones, who runs businesses in nearby Theodore and Dululu, is working to reopen his service station in Wowan after it was forced to close following storm damage in 2021.
Mr Jones said when it was operational, he had to use treated rainwater for the Wowan business, which was tested by the council.
When that was not available, he had to truck water in at a cost of thousands of dollars.
“That doesn’t last too long in a business … three months,” he said.
“If you haven’t got water, you haven’t got a business, you can’t serve coffees, you can’t clean.”
Water security data unknown
Less than 50 kilometres from Wowan, water is still being trucked into the town of Mount Morgan, which has struggled through drought for several years.
A pipeline to secure a permanent potable water supply to the town is now being built.
Ana Manero, with the Water Justice Hub and the Australian National University Crawford School of Public Policy, said the exact number of areas struggling with drinking water security was not known.
“We have a lot of anecdotal evidence that this is happening across Australia, [but] we are still unable to know how many people do not have access to safe drinking water, which quite frankly, is astonishing,” Dr Manero said.
“We don’t have a systematic centralised record of water quality in Australia.
“[Australia has] the technology, not only to deliver the services, but to monitor and report the places that are not meeting those targets.”
Dr Manero said a survey from the Water Justice Hub found there was a “high level of support” among the Australian population, even from those not affected by water security issues, to have drinking water supplies secured for everyone.
An independent study of rainwater tanks near the Cadia goldmine in central west New South Wales has detected unsafe levels of mercury in some residents’ drinking water, nine months after widespread water testing conducted by NSW Health found no unsafe results.
The results come from an independent testing program conducted by Dr Ian Wright through the Cadia Community Sustainability Network (CCSN), which took water samples from kitchen taps and the top and bottom of rainwater tanks at 42 properties near the mine, between August and November 2023.
Mercury was found in half of the 40 samples taken from the bottom of the rainwater tanks, and of those samples, two exceeded the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines for mercury, which is less than 1.0 micrograms per litre. The guidelines are the national basis for determining safe water quality.
Mercury was also detected in nine samples taken from the tops of tanks, and eight from kitchen taps. None of these samples exceeded the guidelines.
The findings have prompted some local residents to ask the environmental regulator to re-test rainwater tanks, as water levels drop over summer.
It’s the fifth round of testing conducted by Wright and CCSN, whose initial test results released in March 2023 sparked an investigation by the NSW Environment Protection Authority and a round of water testing by NSW Health, the EPA, and ALS, an independent company contracted by Cadia. Cadia is owned by Australia-based Newmont Corporation, one of the world’s biggest gold miners.
The EPA this month said the results of the tank and soil tests in Cadia Valley were “typical” of Australian rainwater tanks, a characterisation the community rejects. The EPA found only four of 97 samples exceeded the guideline limits for any contaminant, and attributed that contamination to “domestic and local sources”. It then stressed the importance of cleaning tanks.
Wright, who is a member of the EPA’s Cadia expert advisory panel and an academic at Western Sydney University, has long argued that the methodology used by regulatory authorities to test rainwater tanks is not adequate because it does not test the whole water column. He said the latest results show the problem lurks at the bottom of the tanks, where sediment-enriched water accumulates.
Lead was found in all of the samples from the bottom of the tanks. Of the 43 tanks, 41 exceeded the Australian drinking water guidelines for lead, and eight by more than 100 times the guidelines. Arsenic, manganese and nickel also exceeded the guideline values in a number of samples taken from the bottom of tanks.
In a statement, CCSN said it had previously found mercury in “many tanks” in a community testing program conducted in December last year, and it said the priority should be determining the mercury’s source.
CCSN said it would be appropriate to retest water tanks as water levels drop over summer.
“We would also like to see a comparative study of contamination in water tanks in rural areas without a mine,” a spokesperson said. “This study needs to consider the amount of contamination as well as the concentration in the sediment.”
The group said also many of the rainwater tanks in the area had been cleaned prior to the latest round of water testing, and it was frustrating for the onus to be on residents to clean tanks rather than the authorities determining the source of the contamination.
Samples collected by NSW Health and ALS on behalf of Cadia in separate investigations conducted earlier this year were analysed also for mercury but no samples were found to have exceeded the guideline limits.
The EPA’s testing program detected mercury in one kitchen tap sample at levels below Australian drinking water guidelines, as well as in the sediment samples taken from some tanks.
Dr Larissa Schneider, an associate professor at the Australian National University and convener of research group Mercury Australia, said more testing should be done.
“The fact that [mercury] has reached guidelines values invites the government to do further studies,” she said. “That’s what the guidelines are there for.”
Schneider said it wasn’t clear whether the mercury was organic – which poses a higher risk to human health – or inorganic. Inorganic mercury, which is the kind typically released by the mining industry, is not as easily absorbed but is “still toxic”, she said.
She said this was why it was important to test for certain bacteria in tanks, which can help convert inorganic to organic mercury.
A pollution incident response management plan for Cadia released in June identified mercury as a potential pollutant from the mine, although not at levels that exceeded clean air regulations.
Guardian Australia understands that the Cadia East Project approval explicitly prohibits the use of mercury or cyanide. Mercury is not a by-product of mining at Cadia but occurs naturally in rock within the district.
The EPA said Cadia is required to comply with the Protection of the Environment Operations (Clean Air) regulations, which set maximum concentration limits of air emissions for Type 1 and 2 substances, including mercury.
“While the presence of metals, including mercury, in sediment or bottom water can be concerning for the community, there is currently no evidence of an exposure pathway from sediment through drinking water,” a spokesperson for the EPA said.
“Any potential exposure can be further limited by regularly cleaning sediment from rainwater tanks.”
The head of a New South Wales mine facing criminal charges has used a public inquiry to apologise to residents near Australia’s biggest gold operation after they raised health concerns about dust coming from its site.
A NSW Upper House Inquiry is investigating the impacts of lead, zinc, gold and silver mining on human and environmental health.
The hearing was triggered by alleged dust pollution breaches at Orange’s Cadia gold mine, owned by Newcrest Mining, and the discovery of heavy metals in nearby residents’ blood and rainwater.
The source of the heavy metals is subject to an investigation by the Environment Protection Authority (EPA).
On Monday, the Newcrest Mining interim chief executive Sherry Duhe and Cadia Valley Operations general manager Michael Dewar faced questioning before the inquiry.
“We haven’t always gotten things right,” Ms Duhe said.
“Recently we’ve seen a breakdown in our relationship with some of our neighbours and we know they have concerns.
“We could have listened more and communicated better and for this we are sorry.”
Concerned neighbours took it upon themselves in July to have their drinking water and blood tested.
Frances Retallack’s farm is near the Cadia Valley mine and is vice president the Cadia Community Sustainability Network.
She said NSW Health told local doctors not to proactively test residents for heavy metal contamination, and instead wait until there were potential symptoms indicating it.
“We’ve been deserted by the agency you would expect to prioritise our health … completely threw our community under the bus,” Ms Retallack said.
“It was horrifying.”
She said a human health impact assessment found the area has double the lung disease incidence compared to NSW.
“We’ve repeatedly as a community talked about ‘do we have a cancer cluster?’,” she said.
“Just anecdotally, ‘Oh there’s another brain cancer, there’s another leukaemia’, and I shouldn’t know this many people who have these sorts of things.”
Water tests not adequate, expert says
Ian Wright, an associate professor of environmental science at Western Sydney University, told the committee he tested water tanks on 10 properties in the Cadia Valley in August this year.
“All 10 supplies received results showing lead at concentrations above the Australian drinking water guidelines. All 10. 100 per cent,” Dr Wright said.
“The US EPA does not recommend there is a safe level for lead.”
He said one tank exceeded the guidelines by 110 times and another by 140 times.
Dr Wright said he “strongly suspects” dust from the mine was falling on rooves and being washed into tanks.
He said water tests by the EPA and NSW Health were not adequate as they failed to test the bottom of the tanks.
“In my opinion their sampling was not fit for purpose and underestimated the health risks for users,” he said.
Mr Dewar said there was no evidence it was emitting dangerous levels of dust outside of the mine’s boundaries when concerns about emissions were raised.
“None of our external monitors suggesting we were polluting off the premises,” Mr Dewar said.
‘Our very strong aim is to never be penalised’: mine
Greens member of the legislative council, Cate Faehrmann, told the hearing the mine had been fined three times for breaches of dust pollution, at a total cost of $45,000.
Ms Faehrmann said Newcrest made $778 million in the last financial year.
“That’s the cost of doing business, isn’t it?” she said.
Ms Duhe replied that the company does not “see any sort of trade-off between fines and profitability”.
“In fact our very strong aim is to never be penalised and to always be in compliance,” she said.
The company uses large bags to capture dust in its underground operation, which have the capacity to hold several hundred kilograms of material.
“It’ll be more than one bag [a day],” Mr Dewar said.
Community engagement ‘inadequate’
NSW EPA chief executive, Tony Chappel, conceded the regulator had failed to work with, or listen to community concerns in the past.
“The way we’ve historically engaged with the community has been inadequate and probably contributes to unnecessary stress and anxiety,” Mr Chappel told the committee.
He said there had been several changes in EPA leadership and executive roles recently to shift its focus.
He conceded some mine operators may consider fines simply as a cost of business.
“I think they’re certainly fearful of both losing their social licence to operate but their literal licences as well.”
The NSW Minerals Council said responsible mining underpins the transition to net-zero targets.
Ms Faehrmann said the state government did not list any of the four minerals being investigated as critical to the energy transition.
The mineral council’s chief executive Stephen Galilee rejected that notion.
“Whether they’re on a government list or not, try doing it without them,” he said.
“That pathway to net-zero is not possible without what is being extracted out of the ground.”
The inquiry will also examine recent approvals of a lead mine in the Mudgee district and a gold project at Blayney, near Bathurst.
Susannah White is from Lue, near Mudgee, where the recently approved Bowdens Silver Project will be built.
She said the planning system favours projects getting approval, at the expense of communities.
“It’s stacked against you financially, it’s stacked against you — in terms of your human resource ability to deal with the proposals.
“You really do get the feeling that you’re in a process that is a process to get to ‘yes’.”
Those Central West mines are situated near towns and on agricultural land.
The inquiry is trying to get to the bottom of dealing with the increased need for critical minerals to reach net zero targets while limiting the impacts on humans and the environment.
The hearing will continue in October.
Newcrest Cadia gold mine report confirms lead contamination connection to rainwater tanks
A report commissioned by a gold mine in central west NSW has confirmed lead matching its ore has been found in the rainwater tanks of Orange district residents.
The HHRA identified that point of use water, such as kitchen tap or tank tap, was the largest risk factor for heavy metal exposure and recommended that tank maintenance and monitoring “guidance is followed”.
Released to the public on September 1, the report concludes that the “potential risks to human health from emissions from CVO is low and acceptable”.
Lead matches Cadia
The report recaps independent studies commissioned by the mine to predict community exposure to date, including a tailings dust study, micro particle shed and lead fingerprinting work done by the University of South Australia.
Lead fingerprinting allows lead to be traced to its source using isotopic signatures.
Under the lead fingerprinting section, the report mentions that lead matching Cadia’s isotopic signature was found in 40 per cent of tank sludge samples collected by Newcrest.
This contradicts the mine’s July press release that stated there was “no evidence linking Cadia to the lead sampled in district rainwater tanks”.
In a statement, the report’s author said: “The information presented in the report is accurate based on available information at the time of completion of the report”.
Newcrest did not comment on why the HHRA report included information that contradicted previous communication by the company.
“The findings of the Human Health Risk Assessment conducted by Sage Environmental shows that Cadia is operating within established health standards, and the potential risk of emissions to human health is low,” it said in a statement.
Cadia Community Sustainability Network chair Gem Green said the changing messages had undermined the community’s trust.
“The process with Newcrest and Cadia over the last several months has completely destroyed the relationship with the community,” Mrs Green said
Twice state average
Using national health data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the assessment built a picture of the health of the Blayney and Orange districts that flank the mine and compared them to the wider region.
It did this to “accurately assess the potential impact of the CVO operations on the population”.
Statistics showed premature respiratory mortality rates for the Orange district were double the state average, and rates for Blayney were approaching double. Childhood asthma rates were also elevated.
Mrs Green said regulators weren’t doing enough.
“We have an entire district which appears to have significantly worse outcomes than surrounding areas,” Mrs Green said.
“In that context shouldn’t we expect the regulators to be doing everything possible to reduce emissions from all sources?”
In a statement, an EPA spokesperson said the Independent Health Risk Assessment was “extensive” and was under review by the watchdog.
“We required Cadia to have this assessment peer reviewed before its submission and the EPA will now have its own technical specialists review the report before it is provided to our independent expert panel for advice,” the spokesperson said.
“All reporting and monitoring provided by Cadia is closely interrogated by the EPA.”
Inquiry to look at communication
A parliamentary inquiry into the impacts of metal mining on health, water and air was announced in July with the committee expected to table its findings in November.
Greens MLC Cate Faehrmann, who will chair the inquiry, said it would closely examine how Newcrest had communicated pollution incidents to the community.
“This is critical to the committee being able to make recommendations to government, including where the law needs to be strengthened,” Ms Faehrmann said.
She said there was very little oversight when it came to mining companies’ public communication.
Water tank testing reveals heavy metal levels in residents’ drinking supply
July 28 2023: https://www.watoday.com.au/environment/conservation/water-tank-testing-reveals-heavy-metal-levels-in-residents-drinking-supply-20230728-p5dryv.html (Laura Chung)
Water samples from the properties surrounding one of Australia’s largest gold mines have failed to show the presence of widespread heavy metals, an investigation by the NSW environmental watchdog has revealed.
The NSW Environment Protection Authority (EPA) completed water testing for more than 85 properties in the Cadia Valley following concerns from residents that pollution from the mine was affecting their health.
EPA officers collected and tested water samples from household kitchen taps and water tanks and compared them to the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Most results from kitchen tap samples showed metal concentrations below the guideline values.
At two properties, lead was detected at or marginally above the accepted level of lead from samples taken in the kitchen tap, but water tank samples from the same properties were below guideline values.
Water tank samples showed six properties had levels of lead above the guideline’s values, while kitchen tap samples at these properties were below guideline values.
Once all tests from the water sampling program are completed, comparisons will be made with water sampling results previously undertaken by NSW Health, industry and the community. The EPA’s and NSW Health’s expert panels will consider the results.
Earlier this year, residents self-tested their tank water and found that, of the 68 samples, 15 were 10 times the safe lead level recommended by the Australian drinking water guidelines. As yet, there is no proven link between the mine and these complaints.
The EPA has also begun a separate extensive air monitoring program in the Cadia Valley.
In an update to investors earlier on Tuesday, Cadia’s owners, Newcrest, said a 12-month study conducted by the federal government’s Australian Nuclear Science Technology Organisation had found Cadia was meeting air quality standards for the mine’s surrounding region, and had highlighted that metals including lead, nickel, selenium and chromium did not exceed national standards, occurring at “very low levels”.
Mining inquiry to examine pollution impacts on health
July 26 2023: https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/mining-inquiry-to-examine-pollution-impacts-on-health-20230725-p5dr0c.html (Laura Chung)
The mining industry has been put on notice with a parliamentary inquiry to examine whether it is contaminating NSW residents and if regulations should be strengthened in response.
The NSW upper house inquiry will investigate the current and future impacts of gold, silver, lead and zinc mining on human health, as well as the effects on land, water and air quality.
The catalyst for the investigation arose from Central West residents’ concerns that pollution from the Cadia Mine – one of Australia’s largest gold mines, just outside Orange – was affecting their health, as reported by the Herald this month.
Some in the community believe dust from the mine has been allowed to drift across the region and pollute local drinking water. Residents tested their tank water earlier this year and found, of the 68 samples, 15 were 10 times the safe lead level recommended by the Australian drinking water guidelines.
Residents claim that children have broken out in rashes and their nails have become rough, ridged and slightly deformed. As yet, there is no proven link between the mine and these complaints.
A spokesperson for the Cadia Community Sustainability Network, a group that aims to work with the mine to find a way to live and work together, said the group welcomed the inquiry and looked forward to sharing their lived experiences.
Terms of reference for upper house inquiry
That Portfolio Committee No. 2 inquire into and report on current and future impacts of gold, silver, lead and zinc mining on human health, land, air and water quality in New South Wales, in particular:
a. The impact on the health of local residents and mine workers, including through biomagnification and bioaccumulation,
b. The impact on catchments and waterways, affecting both surface and groundwater destined for, local and town water supplies, including rainwater tanks, and on aquatic biodiversity,
c. The impact on land and soil, crops and livestock, including through biomagnification and bioaccumulation,
d. The adequacy of the response and any compliance action taken by the regulatory
authorities in response to complaints and concerns from communities affected by mining activities,
The effectiveness of the current regulatory framework in terms of monitoring, compliance, risk management and harm reduction from mining activities,
f. The effectiveness of current decommissioning and rehabilitation practices in safeguarding human health and the environment,
g. The effectiveness of New South Wales Government agencies to regulate and improve outcomes including:
the measurement, reporting and public awareness,
the provision of various protective materials,
the ability to ensure the health of at-risk groups
the suitability of work health and safety regulations, and the capacity to respond within existing resources,
the adequacy of existing work, health and safety standards for workers,
whether the regulatory framework for heavy metals and critical minerals mining is fit for purpose and able to ensure that the positive and negative impacts of heavy metals and critical minerals mining on local communities, economies (including job creation) and the environment are appropriately balanced.
i. Any other related matters.
2. The committee reports on its findings by 21 November 2023.
An investigation by the NSW Environment Protection Authority (EPA) into the residents’ claims is ongoing, with the mine’s owner, Newcrest, separately addressing the matter. The EPA has previously threatened to suspend the mine’s licence when the agency found “an unacceptable level of dust” coming from the mine.
In an update to investors earlier on Tuesday, Newcrest said a 12-month study conducted by the federal government’s Australian Nuclear Science Technology Organisation had found Cadia was meeting air quality standards for the mine’s surrounding region, and had highlighted that metals including lead, nickel, selenium and chromium did not exceed national standards, occurring at “very low levels”.
A Newcrest spokesperson said in response to the announcement of the parliamentary inquiry that the company welcomed the chance to talk about its operations.
“Mining safely, responsibly and sustainably is what our communities expect of us and what we demand of ourselves. Health and safety isn’t an option for our company, it’s a pre-requisite,” the spokesperson said.
Chair of the inquiry and Greens MP Dr Amanda Cohn said the inquiry would “examine whether there is an appropriate balance between the mining activities undertaken in this state and the health and wellbeing of communities and environmental areas impacted by those activities”.
Greens MP Cate Faehrmann said she expected strong engagement from multiple communities facing the prospect of heavy mining nearby.
“With one gold mine and a silver and lead mine having recently been approved in regional NSW, we must ensure that every measure is taken to protect human health and the environment. If this can’t be guaranteed, then the mines should not progress,” she said.
“Our regulatory framework protects global mining companies more than it does local communities and the environment. This is clearly unacceptable, and I certainly hope that we’ll come up with some recommendations to redress this imbalance.”
Claims from the Cadia community have spooked residents in Lue, about 30 kilometres from Mudgee. In April, the Independent Planning Commission (IPC) approved a new silver, zinc and lead mine. The Bowdens Silver mine owner – Silver Mines Limited – is set to produce about 3.4 million ounces of silver a year, as well as 6900 tonnes of zinc and 5100 tonnes of lead. Nearby McPhillamys Gold Project has also received approval from the IPC.
Lue resident and fifth-generation farmer Tom Combes said the inquiry meant small communities were being heard.
“I am delighted that [we’re] finally getting some reaction. We are fighting huge companies that are raising money through hedge funds. We are [funding] it through cake stores and trivia stores. That’s just not a fair playing field. The government needs to get more involved.”
The inquiry will also examine regulatory framework, rehabilitation and decommissioning practices – an issue that will become increasingly important as mines and other fossil fuel-intensive projects across Australia wind down. In the Hunter Valley alone, about 17 coal mines may close in the next 20 years.
“The whole country is littered with closed mines that have inadequate rehabilitation,” he said.
The inquiry will provide its findings by November 2023.
Newcrest’s lead contamination claims ‘inconsistent’ with expert report findings, its author says
July 21 2023: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/jul/21/newcrest-cadia-hill-lead-contamination-expert-report-findings (Fleur Connick)
Prof Brian Gulson says Cadia Hill goldmine could not be ruled in or out as the source of the lead, despite miner saying there was ‘no evidence’
An expert who analysed rainwater samples for possible lead contamination from Newcrest’s Cadia Hill goldmine says the company’s public interpretation of his report is “inconsistent” with his findings.
Newcrest commissioned Prof Brian Gulson from Macquarie University to conduct a lead isotopic analysis of water and sediment samples taken from 145 residential properties in the region and compare those with the lead found in the mine’s ore.
The samples were collected in March and April. Guardian Australia understands that Newcrest provided 88 sediment samples and 16 water samples – 12 from rainwater tanks and four from the kitchen tap – to the University of South Australia for lead isotopic fingerprinting, a tracing technique used to identify the possible sources of lead.
Newcrest said that only the water samples that returned readings for lead above the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines of 0.01mg/L were sent for isotopic fingerprinting.
Gulson’s report analysing those results was published last Friday.
In a press release on Wednesday, Newcrest said the report found “no evidence” linking Cadia to the lead in the samples. It also claimed the report said 74 of the 88 sediment or sludge samples had “no correlation” to the lead samples taken from Cadia’s ore.
The remaining 14 samples exhibited “similar characteristics” to the lead samples from the mine’s ore and soil in the district, Newcrest said. Those samples also “recorded the lowest concentration of lead amongst all the sludge samples”.
“It’s clear to us in the [report’s] conclusion that there is no evidence linking Cadia to the lead that was found in the samples in the tanks that we tested,” the Cadia Valley Operations general manager, Mick Dewar, told Guardian Australia.
He added that the company does “note and acknowledge” Gulson’s comments in the report that the lead characteristics of the mine’s ore and the lead found in regional soil samples “could not be discriminated”.
“In addition to that, it was noted that there were no other markers or pointers suggesting that Cadia could be linked, such as a higher propensity of concentrations close to the mine,” Dewar said.
“There was no relationship there that suggests that the inability to discriminate between those two characteristics was anything other than no tangible link.”
Gulson, who is an expert in lead analysis, said the “claim about ‘no evidence’ is inconsistent” with his findings.
It is also inconsistent with Newcrest’s own fact sheet on the report, which says that due to the overlapping signatures “the source [of lead] could not be determined”.
“The ore field [lead] signature is in 12 of the 13 soil samples,” Gulson said.
He recommended a more comprehensive soil lead isotope testing program should be undertaken, given the “dominant” lead signature from the mine.
“You need more information, more data to try and get that relationship between either the mining operations or the soil,” he said.
Gulson said the report’s findings were inconclusive but did not rule out a connection to the ore from the mine. Of the water samples analysed, nine of 12 rainwater tanks samples and one of four kitchen tap samples were found to have lead isotopes matching Cadia’s ore.
Of the 88 sediment samples, 14 matched the lead isotope from Cadia’s ore and 74 were found to be consistent with lead “derived from a mixture” of sources, including the mine’s ore, rocks and soil, and lead from other contaminants such as petrol, batteries and paint.
But Gulson said “there was not enough data or hardly any data” to determine the source of lead found in the tanks.
“The important thing is that there was the [lead] fingerprint in some of the sludge samples [that] coincided with the ore field signature, but that didn’t necessarily prove that it actually came from the ore samples themselves,” he said.
“You can’t distinguish whether or not it’s the signature coming from the ore, the mining operation or out of a vent … or whether it’s soil that’s blown in on to the roofs and then finished up in the sludge. And at the moment, you can’t really say which is which.”
Newcrest is yet to provide the EPA with the chemical analysis of samples taken from the mine’s main crusher dust vent. That report is due at the end of July.
Due to his concerns around the accuracy of data and methodology in the report, Gulson recommended measuring a suite of samples with more precise methods to validate the data already accumulated.
Dewar said that while the company is “actively reviewing and considering” Gulson’s recommendations, it is “not inclined to pursue” them.
He said the company was taking “a broader viewpoint” of concerns about its emissions.
“In terms of narrowing the focus down to Cadia’s contribution to that lead, we’re satisfied with Prof Gulson’s report, with the Todoroski air modelling, with the Ansto modelling, with our boundary PM 10 monitoring and TDS modelling, that there is no evidence supporting that link,” Dewar said.
Taken together, Dewar said, those studies “strongly suggest that there is no evidence that we are creating a risk” to the community’s health.
“We think we’ve done the work to demonstrate that now,” he said.
The EPA told Guardian Australia it was currently reviewing the report, which will inform its regulatory activity. “Where appropriate, we will seek advice from our recently established expert panel to inform any future monitoring,” a spokesperson said.
Cadia Gold Mine near Orange ordered to fix dust pollution after heavy metals found in locals’ blood, water
May 30 2023: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-30/cadia-gold-mine-dust-pollution-deadline/102406512
Cadia Gold Mine in central western New South Wales has been given a series of deadlines to show it is complying with its obligations to prevent air pollution.
The Environment Protection Authority (EPA) has issued a final prevention notice, outlining the steps that must be taken to reduce emissions from the site and reassure the community.
Cadia has just over a week to provide an interim report on emissions from an air vent which has been a cause of concern for residents.
It must then present a final report on sampling of this vent shaft two weeks later.
“The sampling within the vent has to be undertaken by highly trained skilled operators,” EPA executive director Carmen Dwyer said.
“That data will be provided to the EPA and we will draw our own conclusions from that data.”
The details of the final pollution prevention notice have heartened the local community but residents say they are concerned about the sampling methods being used.
“The community now has a timeline to watch and observe and see what the reports and the results come back as,” Cadia Community Sustainability Network chair Gem Green said.
“There are still a few muddy areas of who’s collecting what and how that will be processed and how that will be reported on.
“We’ll be keeping in close touch with the EPA to get a more definitive interpretation of how that will be done.”
District monitoring
The mine must simultaneously review its existing air sampling network and produce a report identifying suitable locations for more units to be installed in the district.
Ms Dwyer said the air monitoring sites would be decided in consultation with Cadia and the community.
“We have a look at dispersion modelling and climatic modelling and we talk to our experts about where that should occur,” she said.
“We’re also talking with the community to understand from their perspective with their local knowledge where should some of this stuff happen.
“The EPA is looking at what monitoring needs to occur within the community and sampling to provide that assurance to the community that are living with clean air and clean water.”
Health concerns
The Cadia Community Sustainability Network said many residents were still concerned about what to do to protect their health while the mine was given time to comply with its regulatory obligations.
“Health-wise, people are still very unsure what to do … we’re obviously encouraging them to get a health assessment conducted,” Ms Green said.
“We’re probably in a little touch of no man’s land at the moment, just with different government agencies sort of speaking with the community, and in the short term the community does need its water tanks cleaned and refilled.”
In a statement, a spokesperson for Cadia Gold Mine said it was cooperating with the EPA and already had work in progress to ensure it complied with the prevention notice.
“We do not compromise on people’s health and safety and remain firmly committed to meeting all our obligations in a way that is aligned with our values,” the spokesperson said.
EPA holds information session for residents as Cadia heavy metal contamination probe begins
May 23 2023: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-23/epa-gold-mine-heavy-metal-contamination-probe-in-nsw/102383008
One day after announcing an investigation into Cadia Valley gold mine, the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) has held a community information session in the village of Millthorpe, New South Wales.
More than 40 residents attended after learning that heavy metals had been discovered in people’s drinking water and bloodstreams.
Representatives from the EPA and NSW Health were on hand to hear concerns and provide advice at the session, which EPA chief executive Tony Chappel said was “extremely valuable”.
“They were appreciative we were there to listen to their concerns and discuss the actions we’re taking into the mine and their activities,” he said.
Most came seeking practical answers, including young mum Kayley Woods-Pendergast.
“I was wanting to know, are we safe to shower in [the water]?” she said.
As the mother of a toddler, Mrs Woods-Pendergast is especially concerned about exposure to lead.
She said she appreciated the session but hoped there would be more support to follow.
“I think what they’re doing today is a great start, but I think there’s definitely more they could be doing,” Mrs Woods-Predergast said.
For some, the opportunity to get tested was particularly important.
Stephanie Luke drove from Bathurst to learn how her rain-fed drinking water supply could be tested.
She said she had experienced unexplained health issues for several years.
“I’m quite curious about whether it’s got to do with environmental elements,” Ms Luke said.
“I’m about to have my water tested and I’m getting my bloods tested as well.”
Ms Luke was surprised companies such as Cadia were not legally required to submit weekly air pollution reports and said she felt let down by regulators.
“To hear stories of people, at their own expense, dragging authorities kicking and screaming and [for] the company to acknowledge that there’s an issue, I feel like we’re in some bizarre backwater,” she said.
Russell, who asked that his surname not be published, was only made aware there was an issue in his district that morning.
Because his household relies exclusively on rainwater, he was eager to arrange water tests that would establish a baseline for the quality of his drinking water.
Russell felt grateful for transparency the event gave the community.
“[That] we can have opportunities like this and find out from the people who are the checks and balances what’s going on, what’s proposed and if there’s a role that we can have to help, so that we’re not stopping progress, but that the progress is responsible,” he said.
EPA to probe Cadia gold mine after heavy metals found in residents’ blood, rainwater
May 22 2023: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-22/epa-probe-cadia-gold-mine-heavy-metal-contamination-claims/102374344
When her daughter started suffering severe skin reactions, Sophie Reynolds tried everything to try to ease the symptoms and find the source.
Ms Reynolds says the sores on her 10-year-old extended across her face and behind her ears.
Simultaneously, the family had been noticing plumes of dust blow onto their property from the direction of the Cadia gold mine near Orange, New South Wales.
When the family had the drinking water from the rainwater tank tested high levels of lead were found.
“As soon as we got those results, I said ‘I am not touching that water,'” Ms Reynolds said.
She started buying bottled water and travelled to Orange to shower and do laundry.
“Two days after I started washing [my daughter’s] face with the town water, the redness went,” Ms Reynolds said.
“Some of the sores were so deep, it took a week and a half [to heal].”
The Reynoldses are among a group of residents living near Cadia Valley Operations (CVO) who have been concerned about dust lifting off the site since 2018.
A section of wall on one of CVO’s tailings storages facility, which holds mining by-products, sustained damage in the same year.
Dozens of families have now had their blood and rainwater tested and the results show high levels of heavy metals such as lead, nickel and selenium.
‘It’s water vapour’
On Monday, the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) announced it has launched an investigation into the mine.
The EPA has issued a draft pollution prevention notice and a draft licence variation regarding the emission of dust and other pollutants from the site.
Chief executive Tony Chappel said he had also written to the NSW chief health officer asking for a full health-risk analysis to determine whether the mine dust was impacting the community’s health.
“Industry has strict obligations to meet clean air standards and currently Cadia appears to be falling well short of our expectations,” Mr Chappel said.
“Last week the EPA received new evidence from the community to suggest actions by the mine to reduce dust pollution have not been effective.”
The notices require the mine to retest a vent and extend an ambient air sampling network.
The EPA has given CVO until Tuesday to respond to the draft notices.
In a statement, Cadia’s acting general manager, Mick Dewar, said the company took seriously the concerns raised by members of the community.
“Nothing is more important than people’s health and safety, and we remain firmly committed to making sure that we meet all of our statutory obligations and do it in a way that is aligned with our values,” Mr Dewar said.
He said the mine had already started a human health risk assessment, a drinking water sampling program, a lead testing program and 12-month dust fingerprinting program through the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation.
Mr Reynolds said he was previously assured by CVO that there was no dust pollution.
“The constant comment back was, ‘It’s water vapour, Bruce,'” he said.
The Reynolds family’s blood tests showed high levels of the heavy metal selenium.
“I am so worried about the future for my daughter and for all the children around here,” Ms Reynolds said.
“We can’t stop breathing — we know it’s landing on our roof, because it’s in the air.”
‘It’s horrendous’
The ABC has seen blood test results from several other residents who live near CVO.
The most common elevated heavy metals are selenium and nickel.
Jann Harries, whose property is one of the closest to CVO, says the community’s relationship with the mine has deteriorated in recent years because of the dust.
“[You can] taste, smell and see the dust,” she said.
“It comes over the valley — you can see it coming across the hill behind us.
“Windows are open and we get a dust cover on the benches.
“It’s horrendous.”
Lead has also been found in Ms Harries’s water tank and her blood tests showed elevated levels of selenium.
She is still waiting for more results from additional tests.
“Currently I’m OK, I feel OK,” Ms Harries said.
“Yes, I’ve got some lead and some selenium, but I feel that I’m not at risk at this point of time.”
Community-led rainwater testing near Orange finds one in three tanks have unsafe lead levels
NSW Health is retesting water after residents raised concerns about elevated traces of heavy metals, which they worry is linked to Cadia goldmine
More than a third of the water samples taken from rainwater tanks near Orange as part of a citizen survey and tested by an independent laboratory showed lead results above the safe levels in the Australian drinking water guidelines.
Those results are now being re-tested by New South Wales Health in an effort to determine if there is a broader public health risk. NSW Health has not provided any updates about those test results or said whether they confirm the results of the initial testing.
Seventy-one samples from regional properties in central western NSW were analysed in a Sydney laboratory over summer after a number of residents raised concerns about the safety of their household water supplies. Twenty-seven indicated lead levels above the national guidelines.
The concerns were first flagged in response to dust clouds at the Newcrest Cadia goldmine. All samples are from properties located within 15km of the mine which do not have access to town water.
The sampling program was coordinated by the Cadia Community Sustainability Network (CCSN) with the support of Dr Ian Wright, a University of Western Sydney researcher, as part of a community science study into the impacts of the mine on water quality.
In a statement to Guardian Australia, a spokesperson for CCSN said they received results in February that “showed some rainwater tanks seemed to have accumulated heavy metal in the bottom of the tank”.
They then sent the initial samples plus a few more to a different laboratory to be tested again.
“This scoping exercise confirmed the preliminary results,” the statement said. “In total we have now tested 40 residents in the district.
“We have provided the information to the Environmental Protection Agency and NSW Health. NSW Health is planning to retest the pilot study to determine next steps.”
Wright told Guardian Australia the source of the contamination had not been confirmed, but that the lead levels were such that he recommended they seek further testing.
“The results are just gobsmacking,” he said. “There are children drinking this stuff.”
One sample showed lead levels that were 84 times the safe level of 0.01mg/L in the Australian drinking water guidelines.
Two of the samples contained traces of arsenic. A number also contained high levels of copper and zinc, but not above the drinking water guidelines.
Wright said the source of the contamination was a secondary concern.
“The primary question is a human health question,” he said. “Should there be a public health warning issued? Should people be drinking this water?”
Some of the initial 71 samples were of water collected from farm shed roofs, Wright said. Cross-contamination from farming chemicals and machinery had not been ruled out.
NSW Health last week confirmed it had been contacted by residents who were concerned about their water supply and environmental health officers had begun collecting samples of rainwater that serves as private household water supplies, which will be tested at government-approved laboratories.
But it stressed it does not have a role in investigating where the contaminants may have come from, and that management of private water supplies – which includes household rainwater tanks – was the responsibility of the property holder.
Because the results concern private water sources, they will not be released unless a broad public health risk is identified.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also confirmed it had received a complaint but said it did not comment on ongoing investigations.
Newcrest is also conducting sampling and sending water to be tested at ALS Laboratories, which are providing results directly back to both residents and the mining company.
“Some residents have started receiving their test results directly from the independent experts undertaking the testing,” a spokesperson said. “Tests show drinking water is safe for those who have received their results so far. We are still waiting for the remaining results and analysis of the large scale testing program to come through over the next couple of weeks.”
Earlier, Newcrest said allegations of dust contamination from the mine did not match its own monitoring and stressed that the cause was “currently unknown”.
CCSN said it was hoping to undertake isotope testing of the heavy metals found in the samples, which may help narrow down its origin.
“The CCSN isn’t attributing blame for this contamination until it can be clearly identified where the source has come from,” the spokesperson said. “We hope that NSW Health and the EPA will quickly determine some clear next steps for the community.”
Wright said it was possible that old water pipes and tanks could be the source of some of the metals seen in the samples, particularly copper and zinc. Lead has not been used in water pipes in Australian homes since the 1930s and the use of a lead-based solder on drinking water pipes has been banned since 1989.
NSW Health to test for heavy metal contamination in private rainwater tanks near regional goldmine
Newcrest Mining says reports of contamination do not match its monitoring data from Cadia goldmine near Orange
Health authorities are conducting water testing after residents reported heavy metal contamination in some household rainwater tanks near the Cadia goldmine in western New South Wales.
Representatives from NSW Health attended a community meeting hosted by the Cadia Community Sustainability Network on Sunday, after a number of people who live near the mine had their rainwater tested. Residents suggested that dust from the mine had settled on their roofs and been washed into tanks.
Most properties within a 15km radius of the mine, which is about 22km from Orange, rely on rainwater for their potable water supply.
A spokesperson for Newcrest Mining, which operates the goldmine, said it had been told about some water testing results from some residents but that the contamination did not correlate with the results of their own air quality monitoring programs.
Western NSW Local Health District said it “does not conduct investigations into environmental or ecological factors which may broadly affect the management of water collected privately, including rainwater”, but that it was assisting residents with testing their household tanks.
“Following independent testing not conducted by NSW Health, the community has raised concern with the District’s PHU [public health unit] regarding the safety and quality of privately collected drinking water at a number of private residences south of Orange,” a spokesperson said.
“The District will conduct additional sampling and testing of the drinking water at a number of those residences supplied only by rainwater, to assist residents in identifying any potential contamination which could pose a health risk.
“Should the District’s testing return results outside the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines at any residence, the PHU will provide support and advice to assess and identify immediate sources of contamination and rectify any issues of concern.”
It added that management of private water supplies such as rainwater tanks was ultimately the responsibility of the householder.
Newcrest said the cause of the contamination was “currently unknown”. It has commissioned a third party to test some of the affected tanks.
“We were made aware that some members of the local community recently undertook self-testing on their drinking water tanks that has shown elevated levels of contaminants,” a company spokesperson said.
“We’ve been part of the community for many years and are taking what we have been told seriously, as historical monitoring data shared with the community and regulator does not appear to correlate with what we have been told.”
The company said it wanted to work with the community but stressed that any support it was offering locals who say their water has been affected was in line with support it would ordinarily offer its neighbours.
Guardian Australia understands Cadia offered to arrange a laundry service and to deliver drinking water to one resident, who reported feeling unsafe using their tank water after tests ordered by the resident showed significantly elevated levels of lead and other contaminants.
“Like others, we want to understand what is behind the findings and want to work with the community to do this,” the spokesperson said. “This is our focus and a critical step to ensure the appropriate course of action can be determined, rather than determining actions based on what may or may not be the cause, which is currently unknown.”
The company was fined $15,000 by the EPA last year for failing to maintain appropriate levels of dust mitigation from its tailings storage facilities. At the time, the EPA said it had received “numerous notifications by residents of dust lift events visible from their homes”.
A Riverland politician and a local irrigation body are calling for investments from the South Australian government to help prevent poor water quality documented throughout the 2022–23 floods.
As the Murray River spread onto flood plains it collected debris and organic matter, impacting the quality for those connected to irrigation water.
Winkie resident Vanessa Weidenhofer has irrigation water at her rental home, which is usually used for drinking, bathing and gardening.
But due to concerns around the water quality, she’s been relying on rainwater for the past two months.
“It’s horrible and we haven’t been able to shower actually. We’ve been going to friends’ houses,” she said.
“It really feels unsafe and unhealthy to be showering in it, and it kind of hurts because it feels like there’s sand or mud in your water.
“We can’t really drink the irrigation water. I wouldn’t.”
Ms Weidenhofer said the discoloured water has impacted her.
She said a bath for a toddler she was babysitting was made a lot more difficult due to the state of the water.
“I went to run the tap in the bath and it started coming out red-brown like clay, it was disgusting,” she said.
“So, I drained the bath and started filling it up with hot pots of rainwater.
“I wouldn’t be bathing or showering children in this kind of water unless people had a permanent filter right next to their house.”
Murky waters
Local member for Chaffey Tim Whetstone said while a decline in water quality could be expected during floods, it was “taking a toll” on irrigators and outlying communities not connected to town water.
He wants a state government investment to improve water quality.
“I think there is a role for the government to play to incentivise people to install rainwater tanks, storage and filtration,” he said.
“That might be some form of a sweetener when going out into the marketplace, so they can be a little bit more self-sufficient in a time when we have either a flood or a high-flow event.”
The Renmark Irrigation Trust (RIT) said at its main pump station, existing filter infrastructure can clog up quickly with organic matter during times of flood.
Currently, 10mm fish exclusion screens are in place which chief executive officer Rosalie Auricht said was dangerous to clean during peak flows.
She said the RIT was interested in modern, 2-3mm self-cleaning fish screens, which would likely cost more than $1 million.
“If we could get it, the environment would benefit because the juvenile fish stay in the river system, and the irrigation community would benefit because there would be less organic matter coming through the pipe system,” she said.
“It would be very expensive for us to do it. However, the government has contributed to these programs in the northern basin … [where] at least $26 million was made available for fish screens.
“I’d love to see something like that made available to people in South Australia.”
SA Water Minister Susan Close has been contacted for comment.
Water bills in WA could double if the high-risk mining practices of Alcoa near a number of Perth’s dams results in contamination, according to the state’s Water Corporation.
Water Corporation described the US aluminium giant’s mining of bauxite in the Darling Scarp as a “very significant intergenerational risk to water quality and security of supply in drinking water catchments” in an internal briefing note obtained by a freedom-of-information request from the Wilderness Society.
The water supply is at risk from heavy rain carrying soil from areas cleared by Alcoa into the dams muddying the normally clear water, making existing water treatment facilities ineffective.
Contamination from spills of oil and the forever chemical PFAS from firefighting foam were also identified as a concern in the September 2022 document summarising work Water Corporation did “in response to increasing risks stemming from bauxite operations”.
More sophisticated water treatment facilities for dams that could be affected by Alcoa’s current and planned mining of the ore used to make aluminium would cost up to $2.6 billion, translating into a doubling of water rates.
Jess Beckerling, director of conservation group WA Forest Alliance, said any increase in water charges would be a slap in the face for West Australians.
“Who would the ordinary West Australian prefer be prioritised, our water supplier, or the Aluminium Company of America?” she said.
Runoff from forests collected in dams is making a falling contribution to south-west water supply as rainfall reduces due to climate change. However, the dams are as vital as ever to the water supply system as they store water from desalination plants and aquifers in winter to be used in summer when demand is highest.
If a critical dam could no longer be used due to contamination, a replacement could cost billions of dollars, which would be additional to the spending on water treatment facilities.
If water treatment facilities or more storage were required, they would take years to build, and meanwhile, not all people would be equally affected.
About 250,000 Water Corporation customers can only be supplied directly from dams due to the system of pipelines in place.
People served by those 250,000 connections would likely have to boil drinking water if the dams were contaminated with soil or switch to bottled water if excessive amounts of hydrocarbons or PFAS were washed into the dams, according to a water industry expert who did not wish to be named as he is not authorised to speak to the media.
The briefing note gives more detail of the threat from Alcoa’s mining to water supply in the south-west of WA, first revealed by this masthead in February.
An Alcoa spokeswoman said the company remained committed to being a sustainable miner and constantly worked to improve its environmental management.
“While potential long-term risks are proposed, it is important to note that Alcoa has been mining in drinking water supply catchment areas for six decades and has never negatively impacted on public drinking water supply,” she said.
Alcoa has its own mining rules
Water Corporation places the blame for the risks it now has to manage on the unique regulatory arrangements Alcoa enjoys.
“Previous mining operations have not been effectively regulated, primarily due to limitations associated with the outdated management framework associated with the relevant State Agreements,” the note said.
Most mining in WA is governed by the independent Environmental Protection Authority and the Department of Water and Environmental Regulation.
However, Alcoa’s mining is governed by a committee of bureaucrats led by the Department of Jobs, Tourism, Science and Innovation and its minister – Deputy Premier Roger Cook – has the final say.
Each year Alcoa submits a rolling five-year mine management plan to the committee – the Mine Management Plan and Liaison Group – and does not have to seek permission to clear native vegetation under the Environmental Protection Act under an exemption granted in 2004.
According to the briefing note, the committee MMPLG has identified increased risks from Alcoa’s mining in recent years that led to “protracted negotiations” before the last two mining plans were approved.
The miner was working closer to dams, in steeper areas more at risk of excessive runoff after a storm, clearing a greater portion of creek valleys feeding the dams, and digging into areas with shallow groundwater.
Plans by Alcoa to go back to areas it previously mined to extract lower grade ore it had left in the past would “create a second wave of disturbance.”
According to the note, Alcoa has cleared more than 220 square kilometres of jarrah forest in the catchment areas of nine Water Corporation dams. More than 50 square kilometres are currently open with no rehabilitation efforts started.
The open area “was a key indicator of risk” for the Water Corporation as this is where water runoff with soil, oil and PFAS is most likely to occur. The area has increased 10-fold in the past 20 years while Alcoa cleared 30 per cent more land than it revegetated.
In the five years to 2022 Alcoa each year on average reported 140 oil spills with a total volume of more than 18,000 litres and 13 spills of PFAS or the less concerning P3 chemical it has used in the past two years.
Failures of drainage works designed to stop water running off the open mine areas were reported an average 42 times a year and “turbidity exceedances” when sediment made water too cloudy were reported an average of 30 times a year.
Since 2020 Alcoa has been restricted to mining areas with less than a nine-degree or (16 per cent) slope no closer than two metres to groundwater, and clear no more than 30 per cent of a creek valley, or sub-catchment, leading to a “reduction in the overall risk profile to the Water Corporation.”
Cook said the Mining Management Plan Liaison Group process allowed relevant experts within the state government to apply the same level of regulatory rigour to Alcoa’s proposed activities that other companies were subject to.
“The state government has made it clear to the company that protecting Perth’s drinking water remains paramount,” he said.
“Alcoa’s current approval to mine is subject to strict criteria that precludes mining in areas of high risk to Perth’s drinking water.”
Cook said a review of the Water Corporation’s monitoring of its dams from mid-2019 to mid-2022 found the water quality was “very good”.
In February, the WA Forest Alliance asked the WA Environmental Protection Authority to review Alcoa’s approved 2022-26 mining plan as well as the 2023-27 plan now under consideration.
The EPA is expected to decide in about a month whether to accept the referral that would subject Alcoa’s mining plans to unprecedented scrutiny and transparency.
In 2020 Alcoa referred a major expansion of its Huntly mine to the EPA and expected to issue an Environmental Review Document for public comment by June 2023.
Alcoa plans riskier mining near Serpentine Dam and massive new exploration
Alcoa’s future mining near Serpentine Dam is a greater threat to Perth’s biggest drinking water dam than its present work which is already worrying the West Australian government.
The US firm – that contests its plans pose a greater risk – is also asking for approval to explore more than 60,000 hectares of jarrah forest in a mine plan currently with the state government for review.
Government fears that heavy rain could cause so much sediment run-off from areas already cleared by Alcoa that water from Serpentine Dam would not be drinkable for months or even years were revealed by this masthead in February.
Alcoa’s future mining poses a significant increase in risk to the dam that supplied 18 per cent of Perth’s water in 2020, according to recent internal state government documentation obtained by this masthead.
The proposed clearing and earthworks – detailed in a five-year plan submitted to the Department of Jobs, Tourism, Science and Innovation and a longer-term expansion proposal lodged with the Environmental Protection Authority in 2020 – includes more mining on steep hillsides near the dam where uncontrolled runoff is more likely.
Alcoa intends to clear more than 60 per cent of the forest in some creek valleys, or subcatchments. Its 2023 to 2027 mine plan includes more than 1500 hectares near the dam, more than 70 per cent of which is in “constrained areas” of greatest risk, according to the government documentation.
Contrary to the state government assessment, Alcoa’s interim vice president of Australian operations, Rob Bear, said the company was not proposing to mine in more difficult areas around Serpentine Dam.
“We have extensive experience operating in areas with similar attributes to those being proposed, including proximity to the dam and the nature of the terrain,” he said.
Bear said Alcoa was working with regulators to improve its already stringent practices, including installing hundreds of additional water monitoring bores, and in 2022 reduced the number of drainage failures by 80 per cent.
“We are aligned with government on the need to maintain responsible and safe operations to protect drinking water,” he said.
In its 2023 to 2027 mining and management program, Alcoa also wants access to more than 60,000 hectares of jarrah forest for exploration, according to a person familiar with the plans who is not authorised to talk to the media. Not all of the area explored would be found suitable for mining.
In 2022, Alcoa extracted 31.4 million tonnes of bauxite from the jarrah forest, 75 per cent of the Pittsburgh-based aluminium giant’s global production.
The ore comes from two mining areas: Huntly, which encroaches on Serpentine Dam and supplied alumina refineries in Kwinana and Pinjarra, and Willowdale, which supports the Wagerup refinery. The alumina is shipped to smelters to make aluminium.
Due to delayed mining plan approvals in WA, Alcoa is now mining lower-grade bauxite which has increased production costs, according to Alcoa’s 2022 annual report.
Alcoa’s 2022 to 2026 plan was only approved by State Development Minister Roger Cook in September 2022 and the 2023 to 2027 plan remains under review, a JTSI spokeswoman said.
She said under the approved plan the miner could not work in higher-risk areas without submitting a method to manage those risks that is accepted by the Mining and Management Program Liaison Group, a committee of bureaucrats that approves Alcoa’s mining.
Higher-risk areas include anywhere with a slope greater than 16 degrees and subcatchments where Alcoa plans to clear more than 30 per cent of the vegetation.
Most mining in WA is assessed by the independent Environmental Protection Authority and regulated by the Department of Water and Environmental Regulation.
However, under a 62-year-old legislated agreement with the state, Alcoa’s mining is governed by the liaison group that is led by JTSI – the department tasked with promoting industry, not protecting the environment – and its plans are regarded by the government as commercial in confidence.
In late 2022, Cook gave Alcoa 12 expectations it had to meet to get future mine plans approved.
According to recent internal state government documentation obtained by this masthead, Alcoa then submitted a plan that inadequately addressed these expectations.
WA Forest Alliance convener Jess Beckerling said the level of risk and secrecy surrounding Alcoa’s mining has reached a tipping point and a full and transparent assessment was required.
Last week the alliance referred the 2022-2026 and 2023-2027 plans to the WA EPA, which has 28 days to decide whether it will investigate.
Alcoa’s operations in WA are 40 per cent owned by ASX-listed Melbourne company Alumina Limited.
Alcoa was warned for years about Perth water threats, so why is our biggest dam at risk?
The West Australian government continued to approve Alcoa’s bauxite mining practices, which threaten Perth’s drinking water supply, despite its own departments raising grave concerns about the issue for at least two years.
This masthead can also reveal that the US aluminium giant’s latest mining plans have not met strict expectations set by State Development Minister Roger Cook.
Alcoa experienced 227 drainage failures and spilled more than 100,000 litres of diesel and hydraulic oil over the past five years including in water catchment zones throughout the Darling Scarp.
The advice shows the Water Corporation, Department of Water and Environmental Regulation (DWER) and Department of Jobs, Tourism, Science and Innovation (JTSI) had frequently raised these concerns with Alcoa over the past two years, but the company’s latest mining plans did not adequately address them.
The fears revolved around the company’s continued push to a non-peer reviewed, self-regulatory pit-level approach to mining in high-slope water catchment areas.
The advisers lamented their concerns had been ignored by Alcoa in its latest mining management program proposal – a rolling five-year plan approved annually by a panel of bureaucrats including JTSI, DWER and Water Corporation, which is signed off by Cook.
The freshest concerns were raised in government feedback to the 2023-27 plan, which advisers said had insufficient information to assess the risks to public drinking water catchments and dams, and was not backed by peer-reviewed science.
The list of expectations
The advisers raised further concerns about Alcoa’s responses to a list of 12 expectations placed on the company’s future mining operations by Cook in his September 2022 approval of last year’s plan.
These expectations included an obligation on Alcoa to submit a 10-year mine plan for assessment by the government panel and that future approvals must have concurrence from Cook, Environment Minister Reece Whitby, and Water Minister Simone McGurk.
Cook also wanted to re-establish a hydrology committee, shut down in 2015, that provided advice to the minister on bauxite mining’s impact on the movement of water in the Perth Hills.
This point was echoed by a spokeswoman from the Water Corporation, who said there was capacity for it to be reconvened.
Despite Cook’s stern expectations, the government’s advice trashed Alcoa’s response, claiming its latest plan was limited, incomplete and not subject to peer review.
Upper house Greens MP Brad Pettit questioned whether political pressure had a part to play in Alcoa’s mining plans being approved at the same time as bureaucrats warned of a major threat to Perth’s drinking water.
Cook, Whitby and McGurk met with Alcoa on December 15 last year, which followed a meeting between Premier Mark McGowan and Alcoa’s global chief executive Roy Harvey in November.
A state government spokesman said McGowan and the senior ministers made it clear in their meetings that risks to Perth’s water sources needed to be appropriately managed.
In addition to Cook’s 12 expectations, the spokesman said Alcoa’s 2022-26 mining plan was approved subject to conditions it did not mine higher-risk areas without submitting a revised risk management plan addressing the government’s concerns.
“To date, Alcoa has not satisfied those concerns and is not currently mining in these areas,” he said.
A JTSI spokesman said the government panel – known as the Mining and Management Program Liaison Group – would not recommend approval of mining in these higher-risk areas until it was satisfied the concerns were addressed.
An Alcoa spokeswoman said the company operated according to its mining and management programs, took its responsibilities seriously and its mining operations had never impacted drinking water supply.
“We continue to work cooperatively with relevant government bodies to address evolving expectations for environmental management,” she said.
Water Corporation tests of Perth dam water quality from 2019 to 2022 found no issues.
How does Alcoa get its approvals?
Alcoa’s approval to mine the Darling Scarp on a lease that spans from Collie to Gidgegannup stems from a State Agreement first inked by the Charles Court’s government in 1961.
It is this legislation and subsequent amendment acts that include the requirement to submit mining management plans annually, their assessment by the government panel, and approval requirements by the state development minister.
This panel is chaired by JTSI and comprised of public servants from Water Corporation; DWER; the departments of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety; Biodiversity Conservation and Attractions; and Planning, Lands and Heritage.
The panel oversees all of Alcoa’s bauxite mining operations including vegetation clearing permits and mine design, but its decisions are not made public and there is no opportunity for public comment.
Pettitt called for an overhaul of the approvals processes for Alcoa’s bauxite mining.
Water quality experts have shed light on the health risks posed by drinking water contaminants amid revelations the government is worried that Alcoa’s bauxite mining practices could shut down Perth’s biggest dam.
Authorities believe the threat has been amplified by a shift in the miner’s practices which has increased the risk of sediment washing into the dam and dragging with it chemical pollutants and disease-causing pathogens.
The government, which has raised concerns with Alcoa, was told by the Water Corporation a spill could necessitate a $2.6 billion spend to clean up the water and force a shutdown of the 78 billion-litre dam which comprises almost one-fifth of Perth’s total water supply.
The dam stores surface runoff, groundwater and desalinated water to meet base load and peak demand in the network, which services more than two million people throughout Perth, the South West, the Goldfields and the agricultural regions.
Though monitoring by the Water Corporation shows water quality to have been “very good”, the state-owned authority said the introduction of pathogens would present a significant risk to public health.
There are strict rules over which human activities can take place in the reservoir protection zone to prevent pathogens entering the water system.
But while disease-causing organisms, viruses and bacteria contaminating a water source are a concern, University of NSW water quality expert Professor Stuart Khan said the threat posed by sediment in the water was two-fold.
Speaking generally, Khan told this masthead sediment runoff had the potential to drag pathogens into the water and impact water treatment processes, making them less effective at removing pathogens and other harmful contaminants.
In the case of bauxite mining, he said that could include everything from dissolved chemicals like aluminium oxide and iron oxide, to heavy metals like cadmium and mercury from crushed rocks.
“A disruption to the treatability of the water can carry very serious public health risks if you don’t have the proper conditions to achieve effective disinfection,” he said.
“The other issue is pH change. If you start to get a highly alkaline or an acidic runoff into that water, or high concentrations of metals like manganese and aluminum, then that makes the water more difficult to treat.”
Unless a water treatment plant was specifically designed to address that problem, Khan said it would not be a quick fix and could take water quality issues directly to the taps of consumers.
The risks of an ever-changing landscape
Alcoa has been clearing to mine bauxite in the jarrah forest for six decades under long-standing state agreements, with its lease spanning a 12,600-square-kilometre area between Perth and Collie.
But the government believes the threat posed by the operation has rapidly increased in recent years, with deeper mine pits, more unrehabilitated areas, and increased removal of the loose rock that sits on top of bedrock across the catchment making it more prone to erosion.
The company has also been moving closer to the water supply, with parts of the operation now within 300 metres of the dam edge.
The likelihood of sediment and dissolved substances travelling into waterways drastically increases during heavy rainfall and extreme weather events in areas susceptible to erosion.
And that is especially problematic in drinking water catchments.
It’s something NSW authorities found out firsthand when a fire swept through a drinking water catchment in western Sydney in 2020, destroying the forest, destabilising the land and sending sediment, ash and debris into Warragamba Dam. This made the water difficult to treat.
The southern half of WA is no stranger to the effects of climate change, which have already resulted in a 20 per cent decline in rainfall and forced the network to rely on other water sources.
University of Western Sydney water quality expert, Professor Ian Wright, said threats to the stability of the landscape were only growing with the increasing frequency of extreme weather events.
“Really, there’s nothing better than forests [for a water catchment]. When you clear the topsoil to get to that bauxite, you increase the risk of erosion and disrupting the salinity,” he said.
“What’s clear is that we’re getting more extreme weather, both drought and heavy rain.
“For a destabilised landscape like a water catchment affected by clearing and mining, this extreme rain, even with rehabilitation techniques that do their best, can make it really hard to hold together the landscape.”
Edith Cowan University researcher Pierre Horwitz echoed those sentiments, and said mining in a water catchment had the potential to change the hydrology and contaminate the water, issues which would persist for many, many years.
A WA government spokesperson said the state had made clear to Alcoa that the drinking water risks needed to be appropriately managed.
An Alcoa spokesperson said the company was improving its water management and monitoring, voluntarily agreeing to stringent reporting of water management-related events.
The company also said it was committed to being a sustainable miner and monitoring its operations, having rehabilitated 6370 of the 7700 hectares it had cleared in WA over the past decade.
Alcoa mining threatens Perth’s drinking water
Feb 8 2023: https://www.watoday.com.au/environment/sustainability/alcoa-mining-threatens-perth-s-drinking-water-20230207-p5cijm.html
Feb 8 2023: Peter Milne Reporter
Drinking water from Perth’s biggest dam could be rendered undrinkable for years thanks to alarming mining practices by Alcoa, potentially causing restrictions and costing the state up to $2.6 billion to clean it up.
The US aluminium giant mines bauxite within 300 metres of the Serpentine Dam, and the risk of sediment flowing into the waterway increased when it changed its methods about five years ago.
Government advisers fear heavy rain could wash so much sediment containing chemical pollutants and disease-causing pathogens into the dam that the water would not be drinkable for months or even years.
Alcoa’s changed mining practices and the risk to Perth’s water supply are detailed in recent internal state government documentation obtained by this masthead.
Serpentine Dam currently holds 78 billion litres of water, enough to supply Perth’s two million people for two months of peak summer consumption. The dam stores surface runoff from the surrounding forest, as well as water from underground aquifers and desalination plants.
The state government’s assessment is that the threat from Alcoa’s mining, just 55 kilometres from the centre of the city, has increased rapidly in recent years.
The company that has mined the northern jarrah forest for 60 years is now working in hillier areas, digging larger pits, and leaving more land unrehabilitated, all of which make sediment runoff more likely, according to the documentation.
The $13 billion company recorded 227 drainage failures across its WA mines in the past five years, and sediment flowed into the dam 46 times in 2021.
In the same period more than 100,000 litres of diesel and hydraulic oil spilled from its truck and earthmoving equipment fleet. In 2022, there were 137 spills with an average volume of 125 litres.
Three state government ministers met with Alcoa in December over concerns about its mining close to the dam.
An Alcoa spokeswoman said it was improving its water management and monitoring and had cut reportable drainage failures to 19 in 2022, only one of which affected a dam. She said all spill areas were cleaned, and it had detected no hydrocarbons downstream from its mining.
“If Alcoa is doing this in one of the most sensitive and public areas, what are they doing further from public view?”
WA Forest Alliance director Jess Beckerling
“Alcoa voluntarily has agreed to stringent reporting of water management-related events that occur in our mining areas,” she said.
“We remain committed to being a sustainable miner and using leading management and monitoring practices in our operations.”
WA Forest Alliance director Jess Beckerling said the risk to Perth’s water supply was unacceptable and immediate action was required.
“If Alcoa is doing this in one of the most sensitive and public areas what are they doing further from public view?” she said.
How Alcoa shapes the land it mines determines whether sediment-laden water reaches the dam or not.
An agreement between Alcoa and Water Corporation requires water from a one in 20-year downpour be retained in sumps for at least five minutes and then drain into bushland, not into streams that feed the dam.
A spokeswoman for Water Minister Simone McGurk said the government had told Alcoa it must appropriately manage risks to dam water quality from its activities.
A review of water monitoring of Perth’s dams for the three years to June 2022 showed all dams, including Serpentine, were very good, the spokeswoman said.
The Alcoa spokeswoman said the company had cleared 7700 hectares in WA in the past decade and rehabilitated 6370 hectares.
The Pittsburgh-based company mines bauxite from a vast 12,600-square-kilometre lease that covers much of the northern jarrah forest from inland of Perth to Collie, 165 kilometres to the south.
In 2022 the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded with high confidence the biodiverse region was at risk of ecological collapse due to hotter, drier conditions and more fires.
In January, Alcoa chief executive Roy Harvey told Wall Street analysts WA, where the company employs about 4000 people, was critical.
It has three refineries in the state to process the bauxite into aluminium oxide that is shipped to aluminium smelters around the world.
The WA operation is operated by Alcoa and owned by a joint venture, 60 per cent owned by Alcoa and 40 per cent by ASX-listed Alumina Limited, that also has a stake in Victoria’s Portland aluminium smelter as well as overseas operations.
The state-owned Water Corporation estimates facilities to make contaminated water drinkable could take five years to build at a cost up to $2.6 billion for all dams affected by mining.
January 2023: Boil Water Alert Clarence River/Coutts Crossing (NSW)
Due to a prolonged dirty water event in the Nymboida River, immediate Level 4 (Severe) Water Restrictions have been introduced in order to avoid the need to call a Boil Water Alert for the whole Clarence Valley water supply system.
The Boil Water Alert for Coutts Crossing issued on 30 January remains in place.
Level 4 restrictions ban all outside watering (except use of grey water).
See the tables attached for the current restrictions in place for specific water uses under Level 4 restrictions.
For more information on permitted uses please refer to the Water Restrictions Policy on Clarence Valley Council’s website.
Restrictions will be reviewed when the water quality in the Nymboida River improves. Council appreciates cooperation and understanding of residents in this matter.
Jan 28 2023: https://www.sheppnews.com.au/news/murray-river-to-flush-out-muddy-water/
A raw and filtered water main flushing program will begin in Moama and Mathoura next week.
The flushing process is designed to wash out any accumulated dissolved mineral sediments that may be sitting in the water mains.
Partly resulting from the floods, it is intended to help eliminate the muddy taste and odour being reported by some Murray River households due to ongoing impacts from the flood event.
While flushing is being undertaken, customers may notice discoloured water and reduced water pressure in their homes, businesses and gardens.
Murray River Council says “this is normal”.
“The discolouration will clear up and the pressure will come back as we move into different areas,” council said.
“The discoloured water does not pose a health risk.
“Our teams are encouraging water customers to check for discolouration, particularly prior to using washing machines.
“If you do experience discoloured water, please run the cold water tap for 5 to 10 minutes until it clears.
“If the discolouration continues past this timeframe, contact council on 1300 087 004 and lodge a service request.”
Daily updates will be provided on council’s Facebook page advising the areas where flushing will occur the following day.
Signs will also be displayed at the entrance to each area while flushing is occurring.
It is expected that the program will be completed by the end of February 2023.
Council assured the community that the drinking water is tested daily and is within the requirements of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“Should further action be required to improve water quality (following the flushing program), council will advise residents prior to undertaking these works,” council said.
“We ask residents who are experiencing issues to firstly run their tap for a minimum of five mins in an attempt to resolve the issue.
“Should the issue persist, please contact council and provide your location and contact details.”
Flinders University study finds key connection in fighting Legionnaires’
Jan 19 2023: https://indiaeducationdiary.in/flinders-university-study-finds-key-connection-in-fighting-legionnaires/
A new study of domestic and hospital drinking water systems found Legionella in 41% of samples – with Flinders University researchers making a key connection between the pathogen’s co-existence with a ‘host’ microorganism in all samples tested.
The Flinders University study found Legionella bacteria “infect the amoeba host and then once inside these hosts are protected from disinfection strategies,” says Associate Professor of Environmental Health Harriet Whiley, a co-author of the new journal article in Water Research.
Researchers tested for Legionella and its likely amoebae hosts in 140 samples of water or biofilm (the slime found on showerheads and end of faucets) to understand how the potentially dangerous bacterium colonises and proliferates in both domestic and hospital plumbing and poses a threat to human health.
Legionnaires’ disease is a severe pneumonia-like infection that can be fatal. Globally the number of Legionnaires’ disease cases is increasing, with elderly and immunocompromised people at the highest risk.
“It is vital that we strive to improve the management of our water distribution systems, particularly in high risk setting such as hospitals, to protect vulnerable populations,” says Associate Professor Whiley, from the Flinders College of Science and Engineering.
“Having a better understanding of the relationships between these amoebae and Legionella is an important step in improving future water treatment processes aimed at controlling Legionella and preventing Legionnaires disease.”
L. pneumophilia is the main cause of Legionnaires’ disease and is not transmitted from person to person but caused by inhalation or aspiration of contaminated water.
Light microscopic images of trophozoites (active form; image A, B and D) and cysts (dormant form; image: C and D circular in shape) of Acanthamoeba (image A, B and C) and Vermamoeba vermiformis (image D) shown at 100 times magnification.
Maintenance and monitoring of water systems is a common preventive step to reduce public risk.
“To our knowledge, this is the first time the amoebae Allovahlkampfia and Stenamoeba have been demonstrated as hosts of L. pneumophila in Australian drinking water,” says Flinders University PhD candidate Muhammad Atif Nisar, who conducted the study.
The findings support the need further research to investigate the prevalence of Legionella as well as free-living amoebae in domestic and commercial water systems and to improve guidelines to better control water systems and safeguard the public health.
Associate Professor Harriet Whiley and Dr Muhammad Atif Nisar in the Environmental Health Laboratory.
“Free-living amoebae are ubiquitous in the environment and cause both opportunistic and non-opportunistic infections in humans. Some amoebae are the natural reservoirs of opportunistic plumbing pathogens, such as Legionella pneumophila,” says Mr Atif Nisar.
“There is a need for future research to improve disinfection strategies against amoeba to reduce their colonisation within building drinking water systems.”
Up to 75% of the drinking water or biofilm samples tested positive for free-living amoebae. This included V. vermiformis which was present in 55% of samples and Acanthamoeba was present in 11%.
As well as being hosts for Legionella, Acanthamoeba and V. vermiformis are pathogens that can cause severe eye infections, with contact lens users and immunocompromised individuals at greatest risk.
The water samples were collected from showers and hand basins located in domestic houses and hospitals across New South Wales and South Australia.
These results demonstrate the importance of amoebae in engineered water systems, both as a pathogen and as a reservoir of Legionella.
“Future water management protocols should incorporate improved treatment strategies to control amoebae to reduce the risk to end-users,” adds Mr Atif Nisar.
Residents of Deniliquin may currently be noticing some discolouration and an unpleasant taste and odour of their water supply.
Edward River Council acting director infrastructure Katrina Bennett said while it may not “look, taste or smell the best, the water is safe to drink.”
Council provides water in accordance with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Whilst aesthetically unappealing, the water is not harmful.
“We acknowledge that the colour, taste and odour of the water is not optimum, however can confidently reassure the community that the water quality remains within requirements and there is no need for residents to boil their drinking water,” Ms Bennett said.
All NSW Water Utility supply systems are heavily regulated by NSW Health to ensure that the water is safe and fit for drinking.
“Council undertakes strict and regular monitoring and testing of our water quality with the water sampled and analysed through all stages of collection, treatment, storage, and distribution.
“Our teams are currently flushing the water mains in areas of concern to help alleviate the problem as quickly as possible.
“Unfortunately, the current discoloured water issue affecting some residents is due to high levels of manganese in the river water due to the floods.
“This can be difficult to treat as it stays soluble in the water until it oxidises once it’s treated with chlorine and pH correction; both of which are vital to ensure the water is safe to drink.
“We will continue to monitor our water quality vigilantly.”
Waikerie (South Australia) – Total Haloacetic Acid
9/3/22: Waikerie (South Australia) Total Haloacetic Acid (HAA 9) 101ug/L (max) 86.5ug/L (av. 2021/22)
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
Waikerie (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Waikerie (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 65ug/L (max), 44.37ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2/3/22: Seaford (South Australia) Total Haloacetic Acid (HAA 9) 99ug/L (max)
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
Woodfield South (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
7/3/22: Woodfield South (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 64ug/L (max), 48.17ug/L (av. 2021/22)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Wingfield (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2021/2022: Wingfield (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 60ug/L (max), 47ug/L (av.)
2022/2023: Wingfield (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 90ug/L (max), 63.33ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2022/23: Gepps Cross (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 82ug/L (max), 60.92ug/L (av.
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
27/1/22: Teringie (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 65ug/L (max), 49.33ug/L (av. 2021/22)
2022/23: Teringie (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 82ug/L (max), 63.5ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
St Morris (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
17/3/22: St Morris (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 61ug/L (max), 46.25ug/L (av. 2021/22)
2022/23: St Morris (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 84ug/L (max), 64.92ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Rostrevor (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
10/2/22: Rostrevor (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 61ug/L (max), 47.33ug/L (av. 2021/22)
2022/23: Rostrevor (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 95ug/L (max), 64.08ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
10/2/22: Norwood (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 61ug/L (max), 49.42ug/L (av. 2021/22)
2022/23: Norwood (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 92ug/L (max), 69.58ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Norwood (South Australia) – Iron
2022/23: Norwood (South Australia) – Iron 1.106mg/L (max), 0.593mg/L (av. 2022/23)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Huntfield Heights (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2021/22: Huntfield Heights (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 60ug/L (max), 47.9ug/L (av.)
2022/23: Huntfield Heights (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 82ug/L (max), 64.58ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
9/3/22: Inkerman (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 61ug/L (max), 48.8ug/L (av. 2021/22)
2022/23: Inkerman (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 61ug/L (max), 32.4ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Inkerman (South Australia) – Iron
2022/23: Inkerman (South Australia) – Iron 7.283mg/L (max), 1.874mg/L (av. 2022/23)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Boil Water Alert Lifted for Bray Park, affected parts of Murwillumbah and out to Crystal Creek
After consulting NSW Health, Tweed Shire Council advises all residents in Bray Park, Murwillumbah and out to Crystal Creek that tap water is now safe to drink.
This applies immediately.
Testing confirms the water supply system has been filled with freshly treated water that is safe.
There is no longer a public health concern over the quality of drinking water, and it is now considered safe for all typical uses including drinking, preparing food and beverages, personal washing, dishwashing, laundry purposes and flushing toilets.
Council has worked closely with NSW Health in the past 48 hours to resolve the situation as quickly as possible.
To protect the health of the community, our crews have emptied the Glencoe Reservoir at North Arm, treated the reservoir with chlorine and refilled the tank. They have also flushed the watermains in the area to reintroduce safe, clean water to the local water supply system.
Scientists from the NATA-accredited Tweed Laboratory Centre have tested the tap water at 6 sites and have confirmed it meets the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and is safe to drink.
Before drinking water, residents should flush out affected water from their pipes with running water for 2 to 3 minutes, including the tap most distant from their water meter, which is usually in backyards.
Boil Water Alert Lifted for Bray Park, affected parts of Murwillumbah and out to Crystal Creek
After consulting NSW Health, Tweed Shire Council advises all residents in Bray Park, Murwillumbah and out to Crystal Creek that tap water is now safe to drink.
This applies immediately.
Testing confirms the water supply system has been filled with freshly treated water that is safe.
There is no longer a public health concern over the quality of drinking water, and it is now considered safe for all typical uses including drinking, preparing food and beverages, personal washing, dishwashing, laundry purposes and flushing toilets.
Council has worked closely with NSW Health in the past 48 hours to resolve the situation as quickly as possible.
To protect the health of the community, our crews have emptied the Glencoe Reservoir at North Arm, treated the reservoir with chlorine and refilled the tank. They have also flushed the watermains in the area to reintroduce safe, clean water to the local water supply system.
Scientists from the NATA-accredited Tweed Laboratory Centre have tested the tap water at 6 sites and have confirmed it meets the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and is safe to drink.
Before drinking water, residents should flush out affected water from their pipes with running water for 2 to 3 minutes, including the tap most distant from their water meter, which is usually in backyards.
Dr Wright warns it is not just drinking unboiled water that can prove harmful. Even contact with skin can have devastating results. “Health authorities always warn us to limit physical contact with floodwater, particularly if you’re elderly, or have cuts and scratches,” he said.
When analysing water, his team looks for faecal coliform indicators. Their presence indicates there is warm-blooded animal waste in the supply. “I’ve tested a lot of water after floods and it’s just evil. We grab samples and test them in the lab the bacteria results just light up.”
Bacteria, viruses and parasites like giardia and cryptosporidium can enter the water supply after flooding. If people drink affected water without boiling it, Dr Wright warns you’re “spinning the chamber in the revolver”. “It’s absolutely Russian roulette.”
“The advice is boil the water, but you don’t just boil it like you’re making a cup of tea, you boil it and leave it on what they call a rolling boil,” he said. “So you hold the button down… for 30 seconds or so then let it cool down.”
Dr Wright warns it is not just drinking unboiled water that can prove harmful. Even contact with skin can have devastating results. “Health authorities always warn us to limit physical contact with floodwater, particularly if you’re elderly, or have cuts and scratches,” he said.
When analysing water, his team looks for faecal coliform indicators. Their presence indicates there is warm-blooded animal waste in the supply. “I’ve tested a lot of water after floods and it’s just evil. We grab samples and test them in the lab the bacteria results just light up.”
Bacteria, viruses and parasites like giardia and cryptosporidium can enter the water supply after flooding. If people drink affected water without boiling it, Dr Wright warns you’re “spinning the chamber in the revolver”. “It’s absolutely Russian roulette.”
“The advice is boil the water, but you don’t just boil it like you’re making a cup of tea, you boil it and leave it on what they call a rolling boil,” he said. “So you hold the button down… for 30 seconds or so then let it cool down.
In many small towns in Australia, councils are responsible for managing the upkeep of water and sewerage systems and combatting the impact of flooding can sometimes be beyond their ability.
“If you don’t travel much and you’re from a big city in Australia, drinking water straight from a tap is probably something you take for granted,” Dr Wright said. “But as soon as you go into a regional location, overseas, or to a developing country, we suddenly become aware of water problems.”
Jan 28 2023: https://www.sheppnews.com.au/news/murray-river-to-flush-out-muddy-water/
A raw and filtered water main flushing program will begin in Moama and Mathoura next week.
The flushing process is designed to wash out any accumulated dissolved mineral sediments that may be sitting in the water mains.
Partly resulting from the floods, it is intended to help eliminate the muddy taste and odour being reported by some Murray River households due to ongoing impacts from the flood event.
While flushing is being undertaken, customers may notice discoloured water and reduced water pressure in their homes, businesses and gardens.
Murray River Council says “this is normal”.
“The discolouration will clear up and the pressure will come back as we move into different areas,” council said.
“The discoloured water does not pose a health risk.
“Our teams are encouraging water customers to check for discolouration, particularly prior to using washing machines.
“If you do experience discoloured water, please run the cold water tap for 5 to 10 minutes until it clears.
“If the discolouration continues past this timeframe, contact council on 1300 087 004 and lodge a service request.”
Daily updates will be provided on council’s Facebook page advising the areas where flushing will occur the following day.
Signs will also be displayed at the entrance to each area while flushing is occurring.
It is expected that the program will be completed by the end of February 2023.
Council assured the community that the drinking water is tested daily and is within the requirements of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“Should further action be required to improve water quality (following the flushing program), council will advise residents prior to undertaking these works,” council said.
“We ask residents who are experiencing issues to firstly run their tap for a minimum of five mins in an attempt to resolve the issue.
“Should the issue persist, please contact council and provide your location and contact details.”
Moama residents frustrated at dirty water as flooding continues to affect filtered water network
Residents in Moama in southern New South Wales are complaining about brown water coming out of their household taps as the local government authority says it’s an issue that is likely to go on for weeks.
Moama resident Beck Angel took to social media to show the discolouration of the water coming out of her taps.
“Here’s our kitchen tap water — bath and shower way worse!” she said.
“We haven’t been drinking it either, but when the water looks like this in the bathroom, [we] don’t really want to wash in it either.”
The Murray River Council said floodwater from the river systems was affecting the council’s filtered water networks and discolouring the usually clear tap water.
“While the filtered water is discoloured, it is not harmful and the filtered water quality is within the requirements of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” a council spokesperson said.
It said the discolouration may cause toilet U-bends to look a little murky, bath water may look dirty, and that white sheets and clothes may not stay white when washed.
“This is likely to be an ongoing issue for weeks to come,” the spokesperson said.
No boil water alert active for the area
Last month, the Echuca-Moama region was inundated by floodwater, and residents continue the recovery and clean-up process.
The Murray Darling Basin Authority data shows the Murray River at Echuca is at 93.78 metres above sea level after peaking at a height of 94.977m on October 27.
Resident Rupert Aldous posted that his water was fine but that he still wouldn’t drink it.
“I’m in Lawson Drive and if you can’t see it, I just half-filled my bathroom basin with water,” he said.
Resident Belinda Lee also said her tap water was fine.
“Even white washing is fine. l don’t drink it before it’s boiled, but it’s not discoloured,” she posted.
But another resident, Denise Slater, took to social media on Sunday to show her load of white clothes stained brown after they had been through a laundry cycle that morning.
Murray River Council last put out a Boil Water Alert for Moama on October 22 due to flood conditions when drinking water in Moama’s filtered water network became unsafe.
Moama’s filtered water comes from the Murray River, and Moulamein from the Edwards River which is filtered at a water filtration plant.
During the reviewed period of May 2003 to May 2008, positiveE.colicounts were recorded in approximately 14% of samples collected from Fitzroy Crossing borefield. This groundwater source is under the direct influence of surface water, resulting in the higher occurrence ofE.colidetections than would typically be seen for a groundwater source.
Less than 2% of positive samples were > 20 most probable number (MPN) per 100 mL. A count less than 20 MPN/100 mL is typically associated with low levels of faecal contamination of the surface water and is used as a microbiological contamination benchmark of the raw water (World Health Organisation 2006).
Western Australia’s Water Corporation has warned an increase in illegal camping and fishing around the Pilbara’s Harding Dam is putting the drinking water source at risk of contamination with human waste.
The corporation’s north west regional manager, Rino Trolio, said the illegal activity was on the rise.
“Since early 2013 there has been a significant increase in recreational activities around the Harding Dam catchment such as fishing, camping and swimming,” he told Hilary Smale on ABC North West Local Radio.
“This has caused an increase in the amount of rubbish and human waste within our source protection area, also known as a P1 area.”
The Harding River was dammed in 1983 for a new source of water in the west Pilbara.
“Harding Dam is really a crucial drinking water source for the west Pilbara,” Mr Trolio said.
“It does provide safe drinking water to customers in Karratha, Roebourne, Wickham, Point Sampson and Dampier.”
With a famously hot and arid climate, the Pilbara’s few freshwater bodies are popular drawcards for locals and tourists.
The Water Corporation tried to manage the natural attraction of Harding Dam by creating an area where people could visit without risking the water quality.
“If they do enjoy this purpose built recreation area, they are doing their bit to protect our drinking water source,” Mr Trolio said.
The Water Corporation warned it would increase surveillance at the dam, and people found undertaking prohibited activities would face fines of up to $5,000.
“By going into the two-kilometre reservoir protection zone, you’re putting your drinking water source at risk of microbiological or chemical contamination,” Mr Trolio said.
The regional manager reassured his customers that their tap water was safe.
“Drinking water supplied from Harding Dam undergoes microfiltration, pH correction, chlorination and fluoridation. Water Corporation regularly monitors the quality of all drinking water supplies to ensure we supply water that is safe to drink. We also work closely with the Department of Health, who regularly reviews our drinking water quality data.”
November 5 2022: Forbes (NSW) Floods make water unsafe to drink
Recent flood conditions at Forbes have resulted in river water ingress into the treated water storage, making drinking water in Forbes Township unsafe to consume.
Water used for drinking or food preparation should be brought to a rolling boil to make it safe. Kettles with automatic shut off switches can do this. Water should then be allowed to cool and stored in a clean container with a lid and refrigerated.
Everyone, particularly people caring for young children, should be careful to avoid scalding, when you are heating and then cooling the water.
Bottled water or cool boiled water should be used for drinking, washing uncooked food (e.g. salad vegetables and fruit), making ice, cleaning teeth, gargling and pet’s drinking water.
Dishes should be washed in hot soapy water or in a dishwasher. Children should take bottled water or cool boiled water to school.
The federal government will allocate $500,000 towards a study into water security in a remote town on South Australia’s west coast.
This week’s budget announced the money would be provided over the next two years to undertake a water security feasibility study in the remote community of Scotdesco, on the eastern edge of the Nullarbor Plain.
The 50 residents in Scotdesco rely on rainwater in the town’s catchment dam for access to drinking water.
Scotdesco Aboriginal Corporation chief executive Robert Larking said while the La Nina seasons over the past two years had provided some relief, in previous years, the town had completely run out of water.
“I’m very thrilled with the announcement, and I’d just like to congratulate the Labor Party for listening to our concerns,” he said.
“We’ve been lucky enough to have some rain these past couple of months, and we’re sitting on probably six and a half foot — so out there, it’s probably half full.
“In the past five to six years we’ve been in drought, so we were probably only receiving about a third of our rainfall, 100ml, a year.”
Mr Larking said when the community was suffering through drought, they had to buy its water, which came at a heavy price.
“We had to buy trucks to bring water into the community,” he said.
“We used to run reverse osmosis probably 10 years ago, but the cost of running a desalination plant was just huge.
“One membrane would cost like $8,000, so with six in the desalination plant, it was $36,000 just in membranes, and we’d probably have to change them every quarter.”
South Australian Council of Social Service chief Ross Womersley welcomed the federal government’s support for Scotdesco but said it was just one step towards addressing wider issues in remote communities across the country.
“Scotdesco has for a long time struggled to deal with the issues of water security, and like many remote communities, the issue of long-term access to affordable, high-quality water supply remains a really crucial issue,” he said.
“We think the investment in the research around helping Scotdesco deal with their circumstances is the starting point to a much bigger conversation about helping remote South Australia deal with long-term access to affordable, potable water supply for drinking purposes.”
The spokesperson said no new patient infections had been identified and no rooms had been closed.
“As part of our enhanced water management plan which involves regular testing of more than a thousand water outlets, we recently detected the presence of legionella pneumophila in three water outlets (hand basin taps) located in an outpatient area and ward room,” they said.
“The finding of legionella in a water system is not unusual, especially from outlets that are not in regular use. Remediation includes placing a bacterial filter on the water outlets (taps) to render them immediately safe, as well as treating them to remove the bacteria.”
Testing and resampling of the water is ongoing.
SCGH has come under fire recently for waiting four months to inform Mr Mayne’s family that he contracted legionella before he died.
Although, NMHS acting chief executive Tony Dolan said there were changes to the next-of-kin which delayed the open disclosure process.
A detection of Legionella bacteria at Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital in Perth has led to 16 rooms being treated for the bacteria and two patients receiving precautionary antibiotics.
A deceased patient, who had been receiving palliative care, was found to be infected with Legionella pneumophila during a post-mortem examination.
In a statement, a spokeswoman for the North Metropolitan Health Service said it could not be concluded the person had died as a direct result of Legionella pneumophila.
“The hospital does not receive the Coroner’s autopsy report so it is not possible to determine the contribution of the Legionella,” she said.
After the infection was confirmed, water filters were installed in two rooms where that patient had been receiving care.
Initial samples showed a positive result for Legionella pneumpohila in those rooms and heated water flushing was conducted.
One of the rooms was reopened but the other remained closed.
The hospital then treated 14 other rooms which had to be closed for two hours, but all had since been reopened.
“Following the immediate application of bacterial filters to the two rooms and their remediation, together with a comprehensive inpatient review, the risk to staff and patients was considered extremely low,” the North Metropolitan Health Service spokeswoman said.
“However, as a precautionary measure two patients who were considered at high risk on the same ward were informed and agreed to receiving a prophylactic antibiotic.”
The spokeswoman said it was not uncommon for some bacteria to be found in a hospital’s water supply and Sir Charles Gairdner was regularly tested.
Legionella bacteria can lead to the potentially deadly Legionnaires’ disease.
Health Minister ‘disappointed’ he was not told
Health Minister Roger Cook denied claims made by the Opposition that he had dismissed the issue when it was raised in parliament last week.
“I have received no brief to the effect that there is any concern with the hospital water at Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital,” Mr Cook said at the time.
In a statement released on Thursday evening, Mr Cook said he appreciated the hospital had taken action to limit the risk to patients.
But he was critical of the fact that he was not informed of the issue until after it was raised in parliament.
“I have written to the chair of the North Metropolitan Health Board to this effect,” he said.
“It is essential that significant matters such as these are identified and brought to my attention.”
In a statement, the North Metropolitan Health Service Board chair David Forbes told the ABC he acknowledged Mr Cook’s disappointment.
“[I] deeply regret not adequately informing him about the situation in a timely manner,” he said.
“I plan to address the Minister’s concerns with him.”
Call for better access to post-mortem reports
Mr Cook also said the incident had highlighted a need for doctors to have access to post-mortem reports.
“This matter also highlights the concerning issue of hospitals and treating clinicians not having access to patient post-mortems,” he said.
“I have spoken with the Attorney-General about this and we are in firm agreement it needs to change.
“The Attorney-General is progressing legislative changes to the Coroners Act to allow post-mortem results to be provided to clinicians and hospitals so they know the cause of death.”
Opposition health spokeswoman Libby Mettam said she remained concerned about the contamination.
“Our heart goes out to the family involved,” Ms Mettam said.
But Mr Cook said he had been reassured there was no ongoing risk.
“I appreciate that Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital took immediate action to limit any potential risk to patients from water contaminated with Legionella,” he said.
The bacteria that causes Legionnaires’ disease — a severe form of pneumonia — was found in several water outlets at the Mounts Bay Road facility.
The private hospital’s provider Healthscope said the detection had prompted several remedial actions.
“Patients and all those working at Mount have been advised of the situation, and we are taking all appropriate steps to ensure their ongoing safety while remediation works are underway,” a spokesman said.
The contamination forced the metropolitan health campus to reduce the number of beds available as they ensured all affected rooms were vacant.
Affected water outlets are now out of service, and thermal disinfection is being undertaken in all hot water outlets Patients are also being monitored for the disease.
“We have advised the Department of Health of the issue and will keep them informed of our remediation progress,” the Healthscope spokesman said.
HealthScope confirmed the contamination was found after routine testing of the hospital water system.
Australian Medical Association WA president Mark Duncan-Smith told 7NEWS the risk of infection was low.
“To get into the body and into the lungs it needs to be in an aerosol form, such as in a hot shower. Now at the Mount Hospital at the moment the taps aren’t being used, so really that sort of environment can’t occur,” he said.
“The trace amounts of legionella would not be likely to cause significant disease. It could, but again this is testimony to the Mount for monitoring its environment.”
Mount Hospital said treatments were still being performed, but doctors are speaking with patients to see whether procedures can be postponed until the taps are turned back on.
It comes after legionella was detected at Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital in May and in 2021.
The family of the 57-year-old former soldier claim it took more than four months for authorities to inform them the late Mr Mayne had contracted Legionnaires’ disease from contaminated hospital water before he died.
He passed away at the hospital on October 6, 2021 — but his loved ones say they only learned of the legionella infection in a Zoom meeting with officials in March.
This was despite health bureaucrats first learning of it in Mr Mayne’s post-mortem on October 28.
North Metropolitan Health Service chief executive Tony Dolan, at the time, said the hospital had communicated with Mr Mayne’s family and prioritised “open disclosure”.
N-Butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS), a plasticizer used commercially in the polymerization of polyamide compounds. It is neurotoxic and has been found to induce spastic myelopathy in rabbits.
N-Butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS), a plasticizer used commercially in the polymerization of polyamide compounds. It is neurotoxic and has been found to induce spastic myelopathy in rabbits.
In recent times however, PFAS chemicals were detected in this borefield above the ADWG health guideline value that was first incorporated into the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) in August 2018. This has resulted in Council decommissioning Bores 2 and 5 and taking Bore 3 offline. Bores 1, 4 and 6 are currently below ADWG values but have been blended in some instances to achieve this result. The results from these bores are regularly monitored and reported to DNRME and Queensland Health. Subsequent investigations have identified the Ayr Fire Station as a highly contaminated site. While the exact pathway for contamination of the drinking water bores has not been elucidated (it may be from a PFAS plume emanating from the QFES site, stormwater that washes off the Fire Station Site, or from direct application of firefighting foam to the surface within Nelsons Lagoon), Council now has to manage the impact. Currently bores are operated in pairs, pumped to the Ayr Water Tower directly. This has effectively managed to maintain PFAS levels below the health guideline now that we have developed an understanding of the behaviour of each bore in the borefield. The risk is further mitigated with the blending of bore water from the Chambers Bores 15 and 16 and the construction of a 450mm trunk cross connector directly linking South Ayr to the Ayr Water Tower. It is Councils understanding that QFES is now undertaking the offsite component of a Contaminated Land investigation to identify the extent and direction of expansion of the contamination plume. It is understood that QFES and the Department of Environment and Science will continue to provide information to Council to allow us to understand the extent of the problem. It is expected that Queensland Health and the Department of Natural Resources Mines and Energy will also advocate for an appropriate infrastructure solution given the contamination is out of the control of Burdekin Shire Council
N-Butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS), a plasticizer used commercially in the polymerization of polyamide compounds. It is neurotoxic and has been found to induce spastic myelopathy in rabbits.
2021/2022: South Ayr (Qld) – Iron 1mg/L (max), 0.224mg/L (mean/av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
South Ayr Raw Water Quality 2010-2020
N-Butylbenzenesulfonamide 2.9ug/L (max)
N-Butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS), a plasticizer used commercially in the polymerization of polyamide compounds. It is neurotoxic and has been found to induce spastic myelopathy in rabbits.
2020/21: Home Hill (Queensland) – Turbidity 5NTU (max), 2.1NTU (average/mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Home Hill (Qld) – Iron
2020/2021: Home Hill (Qld) – Iron 0.49mg/L (max), 0.16mg/L (mean/av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Australian mining company South32 has announced it will not proceed with a plan to extend the life of its Dendrobium coal mine beneath Sydney’s drinking water catchment.
The company had planned to extract an additional 78 million tonnes of metallurgical coal from the underground operation, west of Wollongong, until 2048.
On Tuesday morning, South32 notified the Australian Stock Exchange it would no longer pursue the project and will instead look to extend the mine life within approved domains.
It was under consideration for approval by the state’s planning minister.
South32 chief executive Graham Kerr said it came to the decision after an extensive analysis of alternatives for the mine.
“Over the past 18 months, we made significant progress actively reshaping our portfolio, and this decision increases our capacity to direct capital towards other opportunities,” Mr Kerr said.
“This includes our world-class development options in North America.
“[It has] the potential to underpin a
significant growth profile to produce metals critical to a low carbon future, servicing strategically important supply chains.”
The company says mining at its nearby Appin colliery is expected to continue at least until 2039.
The Dendrobium mine started operating in 2002 and supplies coal to BlueScope Steel’s Port Kembla plant and the Whyalla Steelworks.
Under its current licence, the mine has consent to continue operating until 2030.
Proposal put ‘great deal at risk’
Deidre Stuart from Protect Our Water Catchment said South32’s announcement came as a relief as it had been a long fight.
“It is great news, the original Dendrobium proposal should never have been allowed in the catchment,” Dr Stuart said.
“There has been a lot of work by a lot of people, the community groups who have tried to raise awareness of the impacts of mining in the catchment
“There was a great deal at risk here.”
Dr Stuart said the state government should take this opportunity to create legislation to prevent any future mining in the water catchment.
Independent MP Justin Field said he was really pleased for the community, which raised legitimate concerns about the project.
“It was really going to be really risky for the water catchments and, of course, the climate impacts were pretty substantial as well,” Mr Field said.
“This is coal and emissions left in the ground, so that is a good thing.
“Hopefully it creates the opportunity to speed up the investment of turning our steel industry green
Union shocked
The district vice president of the Construction, Forestry, Maritime, Mining and Energy Union said the decision would affect about 500 direct jobs and hundreds more support roles.
“We had expected the project to move forward so it was very unexpected news this morning for us and our members,” Bob Timbs said.
“The life of the mine at the moment won’t go past 2028 unless they can explore and open up other avenues of mining in the current footprint.
“They’ve said their expected returns don’t support the investment and that’s fair enough but that’s bad news for us, bad news for our members and bad news for the Illawarra.”
Mr Timbs anticipated younger members would start to consider their exit strategy from the operation but said the company’s decision did not spell the end of coal mining locally.
“Not at all, there’s still a lot of coal in the area to be mined.. it’s certainly not the end of the coal industry in the southern coal fields,” he said.
“There’s six years in front of us and with a bit of luck there might be some further extensions or expansions to the mine that might take it out past 2028.
“So we’ve got a lot of time to assist our members.”
Continued supply for BlueScope
During a hearing of the Independent Planning Commission in 2020, BlueScope Steel told the panel an extension of the mine was “critical” to the survival of its Australian operations as South32 supplied two thirds of its coking coal requirements.
On Tuesday, a BlueScope spokesperson said it welcomed the company’s new direction.
“BlueScope currently procures a blend of coal from [Illawarra Metallurgical Coal’s] IMC’s Dendrobium and Appin coal mines under a long-term contract to 2032,” the spokesperson said in a statement.
“We welcome South32’s announcement that they will continue to optimise Dendrobium and the broader IMC complex to extend the mine life within approved domains.
“This is supportive of continued supply of metallurgical coal to BlueScope’s Port Kembla Steelworks.”
Do not use’: The Melburnians told to stop using tap water amid contamination scare
August 10 2022: Langs Road Ascot Vale, Melbourne
Do not use’: The Melburnians told to stop using tap water amid contamination scare (Globeecho.com)
Dozens of residents in Melbourne’s north west have been left without water for days after they were told it had been contaminated and shut off without warning.
Some 33 customers on Langs Road, Ascot Vale had their water supply turned off by Greater Western Water on Tuesday, after the water was declared unsafe to drink, cook with or even shower with.
Greater Western Water’s Maree Lang said the residents had been issued a “do not use” notice.
The decision was made in consultation with the Health Department after Greater Western Water noticed potential contamination in the water of a burst pipe they were inspecting.
It’s believed a truck taking water from the burst pipe accidentally pumped some back in, potentially causing the contamination.
The Ascot Vale Leisure Centre has also been impacted. Credit: 7NEWS
Resident Joshua Marmara told 7NEWS it was frustrating they weren’t given some sort of heads up on what was happening.
“It’d be really nice if they told us from the outset, you know just an email, even a call, doesn’t matter if it’s early in the morning, just something to communicate,” he said.
The Ascot Vale Leisure Centre and Ascot Vale West Primary School have also been affected by the halted water supply.
Impacted residents have been offered free accommodation at a nearby hotel until the issue is resolved, however, it is not yet clear when the water will be turned back on.
Localised incident as chlorates at all other sites were low. Hypochlorite stock was replaced at Roseneath Reservoir and resamples returned chlorate concentration of at 0.559 µg/L and 0.320µg/L. Readvised staff of the requirement to monitor stock appropriately and replace before stock becomes old and decays, even if it means replacing it before it has been used up.
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
18/1/19 – Balgal Beach/Toolakea (Queensland) – Lead
18/1/19 Balgal Beach/Toolakea (Queensland) – Lead 0.012mg/L and 0.013mg/L.
No lead detections elsewhere in the system or at the WTP on this date or in previous weeks. It was determined that this was a localised issue at the two sample taps. Resample did not detect lead and previous samples at these points had not detected lead. Sample points were replaced with dedicated Ned Kelly sample points and lead has not been detected since.
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2018/19: Redland (Queensland) – Lead 0.012mg/L (max).
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
13/8/19: Laura Library (Queensland) Chlorate 1.54mg/L
10/2/20: Laura Roadhouse (Queensland) Chlorate 0.936mg/L
11/5/20: Laura Telstra Hut (Queensland) Chlorate 1.2mg/L
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective in the control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Water supply in Dubbo undrinkable as boil water alert timeframe remains unclear
July 11 2022: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-11/dubbo-boil-water-alert-timeframe-remains-unclear/101226698
The water supply for Dubbo and some surrounding villages remains undrinkable five days after a boil-water alert was issued for the area.
Staff from Dubbo Regional Council are working with NSW Public Health to drain turbid water from the city’s reservoirs and re-fill them with compliant water.
Director of Infrastructure Luke Ryan says getting the water back to a safe drinking quality will happen in stages, with each village to be given the all-clear at different times.
“In terms of diluting the water, that means we’ve actually got to add water to the reservoir, and then drain it all the way back down,” he said.
Recent flooding in the Macquarie-Wambuul River caused turbidity levels in Dubbo’s water supply to exceed the maximum of 0.5 – triggering an immediate boil-water alert to be issued last Thursday morning.
Impacted villages include Firgrove, Wongarbon, Eumungerie, Ballimore, Mogriguy, and Brocklehurst.
Within an hour of the alert being issued, bottled water was stripped bare from supermarket shelves in Dubbo.
The same day the boil water alert was issued, the council advertised a three-year contract for the position of manager of strategy, water supply and sewerage.
It has told the ABC in a statement that the role is not related to recent issues with Dubbo’s water supply.
“The successful candidate will be involved in developing strategies to evolve Dubbo Regional Council’s existing capabilities to overcome or adapt to issues such as this in the future,” a spokesperson said.
Works to flush water ongoing
It’s not known exactly how long the process of draining and re-filling reservoirs will take, however, Mayor Matthew Dickerson says it will most certainly be longer than first anticipated.
Initial communications indicated that the council expected the process to take up to seven days.
A large volume of water will be moving through Dubbo’s stormwater system in the coming days as water is emptied out of reservoirs.
Council staff say it is the first time Dubbo has experienced a boil-water alert since November 2016, when bird excrement in one reservoir caused a high risk of E.coli contamination.
‘Catastrophic’ risk to the elderly, immunocompromised
The Western NSW Local Health District’s coordinator of communicable disease control Priscilla Stanley says the presence of cryptosporidium, a microscopic parasite that causes the diarrhoeal disease cryptosporidiosis, is of major concern.
“It can cause a catastrophic outcome … people need to keep boiling and cooling their water to keep themselves out of a dire situation,” she said.
The Dubbo region hasn’t experienced an increase in gastro illnesses, however, Ms Stanley urges people to be on the lookout for symptoms.
Water supply in Dubbo undrinkable as boil water alert timeframe remains unclear
July 11 2022: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-11/dubbo-boil-water-alert-timeframe-remains-unclear/101226698
The water supply for Dubbo and some surrounding villages remains undrinkable five days after a boil-water alert was issued for the area.
Staff from Dubbo Regional Council are working with NSW Public Health to drain turbid water from the city’s reservoirs and re-fill them with compliant water.
Director of Infrastructure Luke Ryan says getting the water back to a safe drinking quality will happen in stages, with each village to be given the all-clear at different times.
“In terms of diluting the water, that means we’ve actually got to add water to the reservoir, and then drain it all the way back down,” he said.
Recent flooding in the Macquarie-Wambuul River caused turbidity levels in Dubbo’s water supply to exceed the maximum of 0.5 – triggering an immediate boil-water alert to be issued last Thursday morning.
Impacted villages include Firgrove, Wongarbon, Eumungerie, Ballimore, Mogriguy, and Brocklehurst.
Within an hour of the alert being issued, bottled water was stripped bare from supermarket shelves in Dubbo.
The same day the boil water alert was issued, the council advertised a three-year contract for the position of manager of strategy, water supply and sewerage.
It has told the ABC in a statement that the role is not related to recent issues with Dubbo’s water supply.
“The successful candidate will be involved in developing strategies to evolve Dubbo Regional Council’s existing capabilities to overcome or adapt to issues such as this in the future,” a spokesperson said.
Works to flush water ongoing
It’s not known exactly how long the process of draining and re-filling reservoirs will take, however, Mayor Matthew Dickerson says it will most certainly be longer than first anticipated.
Initial communications indicated that the council expected the process to take up to seven days.
A large volume of water will be moving through Dubbo’s stormwater system in the coming days as water is emptied out of reservoirs.
Council staff say it is the first time Dubbo has experienced a boil-water alert since November 2016, when bird excrement in one reservoir caused a high risk of E.coli contamination.
‘Catastrophic’ risk to the elderly, immunocompromised
The Western NSW Local Health District’s coordinator of communicable disease control Priscilla Stanley says the presence of cryptosporidium, a microscopic parasite that causes the diarrhoeal disease cryptosporidiosis, is of major concern.
“It can cause a catastrophic outcome … people need to keep boiling and cooling their water to keep themselves out of a dire situation,” she said.
The Dubbo region hasn’t experienced an increase in gastro illnesses, however, Ms Stanley urges people to be on the lookout for symptoms.
Water supply in Dubbo undrinkable as boil water alert timeframe remains unclear
July 11 2022: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-11/dubbo-boil-water-alert-timeframe-remains-unclear/101226698
The water supply for Dubbo and some surrounding villages remains undrinkable five days after a boil-water alert was issued for the area.
Staff from Dubbo Regional Council are working with NSW Public Health to drain turbid water from the city’s reservoirs and re-fill them with compliant water.
Director of Infrastructure Luke Ryan says getting the water back to a safe drinking quality will happen in stages, with each village to be given the all-clear at different times.
“In terms of diluting the water, that means we’ve actually got to add water to the reservoir, and then drain it all the way back down,” he said.
Recent flooding in the Macquarie-Wambuul River caused turbidity levels in Dubbo’s water supply to exceed the maximum of 0.5 – triggering an immediate boil-water alert to be issued last Thursday morning.
Impacted villages include Firgrove, Wongarbon, Eumungerie, Ballimore, Mogriguy, and Brocklehurst.
Within an hour of the alert being issued, bottled water was stripped bare from supermarket shelves in Dubbo.
The same day the boil water alert was issued, the council advertised a three-year contract for the position of manager of strategy, water supply and sewerage.
It has told the ABC in a statement that the role is not related to recent issues with Dubbo’s water supply.
“The successful candidate will be involved in developing strategies to evolve Dubbo Regional Council’s existing capabilities to overcome or adapt to issues such as this in the future,” a spokesperson said.
Works to flush water ongoing
It’s not known exactly how long the process of draining and re-filling reservoirs will take, however, Mayor Matthew Dickerson says it will most certainly be longer than first anticipated.
Initial communications indicated that the council expected the process to take up to seven days.
A large volume of water will be moving through Dubbo’s stormwater system in the coming days as water is emptied out of reservoirs.
Council staff say it is the first time Dubbo has experienced a boil-water alert since November 2016, when bird excrement in one reservoir caused a high risk of E.coli contamination.
‘Catastrophic’ risk to the elderly, immunocompromised
The Western NSW Local Health District’s coordinator of communicable disease control Priscilla Stanley says the presence of cryptosporidium, a microscopic parasite that causes the diarrhoeal disease cryptosporidiosis, is of major concern.
“It can cause a catastrophic outcome … people need to keep boiling and cooling their water to keep themselves out of a dire situation,” she said.
The Dubbo region hasn’t experienced an increase in gastro illnesses, however, Ms Stanley urges people to be on the lookout for symptoms.
Water supply in Dubbo undrinkable as boil water alert timeframe remains unclear
July 11 2022: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-11/dubbo-boil-water-alert-timeframe-remains-unclear/101226698
The water supply for Dubbo and some surrounding villages remains undrinkable five days after a boil-water alert was issued for the area.
Staff from Dubbo Regional Council are working with NSW Public Health to drain turbid water from the city’s reservoirs and re-fill them with compliant water.
Director of Infrastructure Luke Ryan says getting the water back to a safe drinking quality will happen in stages, with each village to be given the all-clear at different times.
“In terms of diluting the water, that means we’ve actually got to add water to the reservoir, and then drain it all the way back down,” he said.
Recent flooding in the Macquarie-Wambuul River caused turbidity levels in Dubbo’s water supply to exceed the maximum of 0.5 – triggering an immediate boil-water alert to be issued last Thursday morning.
Impacted villages include Firgrove, Wongarbon, Eumungerie, Ballimore, Mogriguy, and Brocklehurst.
Within an hour of the alert being issued, bottled water was stripped bare from supermarket shelves in Dubbo.
The same day the boil water alert was issued, the council advertised a three-year contract for the position of manager of strategy, water supply and sewerage.
It has told the ABC in a statement that the role is not related to recent issues with Dubbo’s water supply.
“The successful candidate will be involved in developing strategies to evolve Dubbo Regional Council’s existing capabilities to overcome or adapt to issues such as this in the future,” a spokesperson said.
Works to flush water ongoing
It’s not known exactly how long the process of draining and re-filling reservoirs will take, however, Mayor Matthew Dickerson says it will most certainly be longer than first anticipated.
Initial communications indicated that the council expected the process to take up to seven days.
A large volume of water will be moving through Dubbo’s stormwater system in the coming days as water is emptied out of reservoirs.
Council staff say it is the first time Dubbo has experienced a boil-water alert since November 2016, when bird excrement in one reservoir caused a high risk of E.coli contamination.
‘Catastrophic’ risk to the elderly, immunocompromised
The Western NSW Local Health District’s coordinator of communicable disease control Priscilla Stanley says the presence of cryptosporidium, a microscopic parasite that causes the diarrhoeal disease cryptosporidiosis, is of major concern.
“It can cause a catastrophic outcome … people need to keep boiling and cooling their water to keep themselves out of a dire situation,” she said.
The Dubbo region hasn’t experienced an increase in gastro illnesses, however, Ms Stanley urges people to be on the lookout for symptoms.
Water supply in Dubbo undrinkable as boil water alert timeframe remains unclear
July 11 2022: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-11/dubbo-boil-water-alert-timeframe-remains-unclear/101226698
The water supply for Dubbo and some surrounding villages remains undrinkable five days after a boil-water alert was issued for the area.
Staff from Dubbo Regional Council are working with NSW Public Health to drain turbid water from the city’s reservoirs and re-fill them with compliant water.
Director of Infrastructure Luke Ryan says getting the water back to a safe drinking quality will happen in stages, with each village to be given the all-clear at different times.
“In terms of diluting the water, that means we’ve actually got to add water to the reservoir, and then drain it all the way back down,” he said.
Recent flooding in the Macquarie-Wambuul River caused turbidity levels in Dubbo’s water supply to exceed the maximum of 0.5 – triggering an immediate boil-water alert to be issued last Thursday morning.
Impacted villages include Firgrove, Wongarbon, Eumungerie, Ballimore, Mogriguy, and Brocklehurst.
Within an hour of the alert being issued, bottled water was stripped bare from supermarket shelves in Dubbo.
The same day the boil water alert was issued, the council advertised a three-year contract for the position of manager of strategy, water supply and sewerage.
It has told the ABC in a statement that the role is not related to recent issues with Dubbo’s water supply.
“The successful candidate will be involved in developing strategies to evolve Dubbo Regional Council’s existing capabilities to overcome or adapt to issues such as this in the future,” a spokesperson said.
Works to flush water ongoing
It’s not known exactly how long the process of draining and re-filling reservoirs will take, however, Mayor Matthew Dickerson says it will most certainly be longer than first anticipated.
Initial communications indicated that the council expected the process to take up to seven days.
A large volume of water will be moving through Dubbo’s stormwater system in the coming days as water is emptied out of reservoirs.
Council staff say it is the first time Dubbo has experienced a boil-water alert since November 2016, when bird excrement in one reservoir caused a high risk of E.coli contamination.
‘Catastrophic’ risk to the elderly, immunocompromised
The Western NSW Local Health District’s coordinator of communicable disease control Priscilla Stanley says the presence of cryptosporidium, a microscopic parasite that causes the diarrhoeal disease cryptosporidiosis, is of major concern.
“It can cause a catastrophic outcome … people need to keep boiling and cooling their water to keep themselves out of a dire situation,” she said.
The Dubbo region hasn’t experienced an increase in gastro illnesses, however, Ms Stanley urges people to be on the lookout for symptoms.
Water supply in Dubbo undrinkable as boil water alert timeframe remains unclear
July 11 2022: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-11/dubbo-boil-water-alert-timeframe-remains-unclear/101226698
The water supply for Dubbo and some surrounding villages remains undrinkable five days after a boil-water alert was issued for the area.
Staff from Dubbo Regional Council are working with NSW Public Health to drain turbid water from the city’s reservoirs and re-fill them with compliant water.
Director of Infrastructure Luke Ryan says getting the water back to a safe drinking quality will happen in stages, with each village to be given the all-clear at different times.
“In terms of diluting the water, that means we’ve actually got to add water to the reservoir, and then drain it all the way back down,” he said.
Recent flooding in the Macquarie-Wambuul River caused turbidity levels in Dubbo’s water supply to exceed the maximum of 0.5 – triggering an immediate boil-water alert to be issued last Thursday morning.
Impacted villages include Firgrove, Wongarbon, Eumungerie, Ballimore, Mogriguy, and Brocklehurst.
Within an hour of the alert being issued, bottled water was stripped bare from supermarket shelves in Dubbo.
The same day the boil water alert was issued, the council advertised a three-year contract for the position of manager of strategy, water supply and sewerage.
It has told the ABC in a statement that the role is not related to recent issues with Dubbo’s water supply.
“The successful candidate will be involved in developing strategies to evolve Dubbo Regional Council’s existing capabilities to overcome or adapt to issues such as this in the future,” a spokesperson said.
Works to flush water ongoing
It’s not known exactly how long the process of draining and re-filling reservoirs will take, however, Mayor Matthew Dickerson says it will most certainly be longer than first anticipated.
Initial communications indicated that the council expected the process to take up to seven days.
A large volume of water will be moving through Dubbo’s stormwater system in the coming days as water is emptied out of reservoirs.
Council staff say it is the first time Dubbo has experienced a boil-water alert since November 2016, when bird excrement in one reservoir caused a high risk of E.coli contamination.
‘Catastrophic’ risk to the elderly, immunocompromised
The Western NSW Local Health District’s coordinator of communicable disease control Priscilla Stanley says the presence of cryptosporidium, a microscopic parasite that causes the diarrhoeal disease cryptosporidiosis, is of major concern.
“It can cause a catastrophic outcome … people need to keep boiling and cooling their water to keep themselves out of a dire situation,” she said.
The Dubbo region hasn’t experienced an increase in gastro illnesses, however, Ms Stanley urges people to be on the lookout for symptoms.
March 24/27 2021: Sawmill Settlement (Vic) – E.coli.
E.coli was detected in the Sawmill Settlement Rosella St Clearwater Storage (CWS) and
reticulation system (retic) after routine monitoring.
490org/100mL (max). 2 Non-complying samples. 1 detection and investigation conducted (s.22), 2 samples where the Standard was not met (s.18)
GVW undertook an immediate check of water treatment plant (WTP) operations, no
operational issues of the WTP were found that would cause such an issue.
There were no Critical Control Point (CCP) failures and all other WTP processes and parameters
had been operating within normal operating ranges. Inspection of the CWS by drone and internal
observation found light penetration from a previous repair to the roof. Suggesting possible ingress
from recent rain as the most likely cause of the E.coli detections.
GVW declared a Level 2 Incident and formed an Incident Control Centre (ICC). GVW issued a Boiled
Water Advisory (BWA) in consultation with the Department of Health (DH) to our customers in the
water sampling locality. Repairs to the roof of the CWS where the suspected ingress occurred were
undertaken on the 24 March 2021. Chlorine levels in both CWS were increased to 1.5mg/L.
Resampling occurred after flushing and then a second round of sampling occurred late on the
afternoon/evening of the 25 March 2021. All resampling results complied with the SDWA 2015.
Customers were advised of the BWA via SMS, Website, social media and media release, variable
message boards, specific information to critical customers who were all personally and directly
contacted. Bottled water and water tanker was provided to customers from a pickup point in the
town as an alternative source of drinking water. Temporary supply was established for key sites
(school and accommodation facilities) for the duration of the event.
The BWA was lifted on the 27 March 2021 in consultation with DH
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Boisdale drinking water reticulation sample point. Detection of E. Coli at a concentration of 1 org/100mL in routine drinking water sampling program. Resampling of the Boisdale reticulation system including the water storage tanks and all available sampling points. Asset inspections and risk assessment of the Boisdale water system. Spot dosing of the Boisdale water tanks and flushing of the reticulation system
Two repeat sampling events of the Boisdale reticulation 24 hrs apart.Minor repairs to the one
water storage tank.
All water quality indicators including residual free chlorine were within our CCPs for system
protection and immediate risk determined to be very low
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Cossack resident Jens Ambjerg-Peterson wants to know why his property was not tested for PFAS after the chemical, associated with various cancers and other health problems, was detected in his suburb.
He is among residents on Katherine’s south-western outskirts whose sense of security was shattered by last month’s discovery that the chemical is continuing to spread more than half a decade after it was found to be leaching into the Katherine township’s drinking water
Mr Ambjerg-Peterson’s house was outside a PFAS contamination zone that was created after the chemical was discovered in a river by the Department of Defence in 2016, and traced back to the Tindal Royal Australian Air Force Base.
PFAS chemicals were used in firefighting foams at Australian defence bases until the early 2000s.
The lines of the contamination zone have since been redefined, but residents in the area say they have been kept in the dark.
Six private properties within the Cossack area have been monitored under the Ongoing Monitoring Plan since 2019,” a department spokeswoman said.
She said another nine private properties were added to the monitoring program in 2021, bringing the total to 15.
Properties left untested
According to the the most recent Census, there were 625 homes in Cossack and more than 1,200 residents.
Mr Ambjerg-Peterson said his bore had never been tested for PFAS.
“The boundary is the bitumen road at the front of my house … it’s been a designated line in the sand and that line is 4 metres from my bore,” he said.
He said most properties in the area were dependent on bore water for irrigation and drinking.
Dangers of PFAS
The Commonwealth’s Expert Health Panel for PFAS said there was limited-to-no evidence of human disease or other clinically significant harm resulting from PFAS exposure but as a precaution, recommends minimal exposure to PFAS wherever possible.
Mr Ambjerg-Peterson said lingering questions and uncertainty about whether or not his water was safe to drink were rattling.
The Department of Defence spokeswoman said PFAS had been detected at eight private properties in the Cossack area, and three properties had been provided alternative drinking water.
However, questions on what levels of PFAS had been found at the properties and why dozens of residents in the area had not had their bores tested were not answered.
“Defence is unable to provide results of sampling at individual properties due to privacy issues,” she said.
She said the department assessed samples from groundwater, surface water and biota, which were primarily fish.
“Monitoring occurs on both public and private property,” she said.
She said the monitoring plan would be reviewed regularly and the department would update the frequency of sampling or the locations in consultation with the NT Environment Protection Authority as required.
‘We don’t know where it has moved’
Fellow Cossack residents Sander Klarenbeek and Lynnvette Rebeiro said they feared they were drinking contaminated water.
They questioned why their property also had not been tested for PFAS.
The meeting was attended by at least a dozen residents. Mr Klarenbeek and Ms Rebeiro said they were not aware the meeting was on.
“We don’t know where it has moved. We don’t know if our bores are affected. We don’t know which bores are affected,” Mr Klarenbeek said.
They said their preceding notion of safety had been replaced by health fears and distress over potential property devaluation.
Bruce Francias, who lives inside the contamination zone a few streets away, said the department tested his bore for PFAS about two years ago.
Results came back negative but it was a different story just 100 metres away at his neighbour’s property.
“It was positive for PFAS and they were given a rainwater tank,” he said.
Mr Francais was at last month’s meeting, and after hearing the chemical had spread further through his suburb, he became alarmed.
“Considering my neighbour tested positive, I would have thought my property would have been looked at again,” he said.
“A lot can happen in 18 months.”
Lack of information sparks rumours
University of Queensland communications expert Kelly Fielding said poor communication could decay trust with the community and cause an “information vacuum”.
She said it was critical when dealing with potential hazards or health risks to communicate “early, often and fully”.
“What can fill that vacuum is misinformation and rumour,” she said.
“For the community members themselves, what this lack of communication does is it makes them feel very uncertain, much more worried than they might need to be because they don’t have good, accurate information.
She said it made it harder for people to work out what precautions they needed to be taking.
“That uncertainty, the worry, the concern that they might have about what’s happening, [whether they are] at risk … is my family at risk … that has a big impact on people’s lives,” she said.
The Australian Drinking Water Guideline for PFHxS+PFOS is 0.07ug/L. This level was breached at Lucinda in July 2018 at 3 seperate locations at Lucinda. The level was also breached at nearby Macknade in 2018 and 2020. Macknade WTP supplies drinking water to Lucinda.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
December 7 2021: E. coli was detected in a routine sample collected from the Calen treated water sample point. Samples collected on the following day and from reticulation sample points detected no E. coli. Low chlorine levels were detected in the original sample. The plant only typically operates during the night, therefore, in order to collect samples it is run in manual mode. In field testing identified that when Bore 2 was operated in manual mode, or when regenerations occurred, chlorine dosing did not always occur. When the Calen reservoir was full, chlorine dosing was not occurring during the regeneration cycle. This could explain
the low free chlorine readings recorded that were recorded at the treatment plant, and not throughout the reticulation system. During the regenerations, chlorine levels in the treated water are elevated as the chlorine dosing rate is constant but the flow rate to distribution is reduced. If the Calen reservoir is full, chlorine dosing will be suspended during the regeneration period. The regeneration cycle typically occurs once a week for a period of 90 minutes. A review of the Calen Water Treatment Plant operational code identified that along with the conflict in the code when pump 2 was run in manual mode, there were other errors in the code which may cause issues with chlorine dosing when the raw water tanks were in operation. Amendments to the code have been made
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2019/20: Cooktown (Queensland) – Colour 21 HU (max), 18.5HU (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
8 January 2021. Dereel Tank (Ballarat system). E. coli – 1 MPN/100mL. 150 connections in the
distribution system downstream of the network treated water storage tank. Informed DH and initiated incident team response. Confirmed residual disinfection in the tank and upstream
and downstream system. Resampled tank. Conducted an external and internal inspection of tank integrity. A potential minor ingress point on the side of the hatch identified as the most likely source of contamination. Sealing repair conducted on hatch. Spot dosed the tank with disinfectant and verified adequate residual in tank and surrounding reticulation. Resamples post corrective actions clear of contamination. Reviewed Nitrification Action Plan trigger
levels. Reviewed suitability of hatch design and whether the same design was present on any other CHW storages. Connected upstream basin mixer to telemetry system with
fail alarm capability. Investigation report submitted to DH.
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
26 August, 2020. Apollo Bay. Detection of Escherichia coli in drinking water (1 MPN/100ml).
On 26 August, Barwon Water was notified of a detection of E. coli and notified DH under
section 22 of the Act. The E. coli was detected in a water quality sample taken the previous
morning from a distribution tank in the Skenes Creek High Level system in the Apollo Bay
locality. The tank supply 5 supply-by-agreement customers.
An investigation was carried out in accordance with Department of Health (DH) guidelines,along with corrective actions which included system review, retesting of the original sample and chlorine dosing followed by sampling.The follow-up samples were free of E. coli and total coliforms. The Department of Health made an assessment requiring Barwon Water to submit a section 18 for noncompliance with the E. coli water quality standard. This was based on not meeting all of the criteria required to claim a false positive outcome. All contributing factors
have been addressed in order to prevent future reoccurrence.
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
A precautionary boil water alert for parts of Singleton has been lifted after NSW Health gave the all clear at a meeting with Singleton Council this morning.
The boil water alert was issued for the Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill on Monday 10 February, and extended to McDougalls Hill on Tuesday 11 February following water sampling results received late Monday 10 February that showed turbidity above and chlorine levels below the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Investigations into the cause of test results indicated that dirt entered the water network during heavy rainfall across 8-9 February.
Council staff worked across the weekend with testing showing that turbidity and chlorine levels had returned to normal.
Katie Hardy, Council’s Manager Water and Sewer Network, said Council staff would doorknock residents with information the boil water alert had been lifted, as well as contact businesses. Customers who collected free bottled water will also be emailed.
Information will be available on Council’s website and Facebook page as well as on the variable message board on Maison Dieu Road.
Customers in the affected areas of The Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill and McDougalls Hill are advised to flush their pipework by running their back outdoor tap for 10 minutes before resuming normal use. Flushing of pipework in properties affected by the boil water alert is exempt from water restrictions.
The standpipe at Maison Dieu will be recommissioned for normal use and has been flushed by Council Officers.
“Council teams have been hard at work since the boil water alert was issued to drain and clean the reservoirs and scour pipework within the affected area,” Ms Hardy said.
“Since the reservoirs were flushed last Thursday and Friday, we’ve been undertaking regular testing across the weekend that showed the water was back to safe levels with no microbial contamination detected.
“On the advice of NSW Health, the boil water alert has now been lifted.
“We advise customers to flush their system by running their external tap for 10 minutes, which will be exempt from water restrictions, before drinking the water.”
Ms Hardy said Council was aware of the concern in the community as a result of the boil water alert, and thousands of bottles of water were distributed to affected residents in response to the situation.
“Council appreciates this situation caused some inconvenience for our customers last week, and we thank you for your patience and understanding,” she said.
A precautionary boil water alert for parts of Singleton has been lifted after NSW Health gave the all clear at a meeting with Singleton Council this morning.
The boil water alert was issued for the Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill on Monday 10 February, and extended to McDougalls Hill on Tuesday 11 February following water sampling results received late Monday 10 February that showed turbidity above and chlorine levels below the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Investigations into the cause of test results indicated that dirt entered the water network during heavy rainfall across 8-9 February.
Council staff worked across the weekend with testing showing that turbidity and chlorine levels had returned to normal.
Katie Hardy, Council’s Manager Water and Sewer Network, said Council staff would doorknock residents with information the boil water alert had been lifted, as well as contact businesses. Customers who collected free bottled water will also be emailed.
Information will be available on Council’s website and Facebook page as well as on the variable message board on Maison Dieu Road.
Customers in the affected areas of The Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill and McDougalls Hill are advised to flush their pipework by running their back outdoor tap for 10 minutes before resuming normal use. Flushing of pipework in properties affected by the boil water alert is exempt from water restrictions.
The standpipe at Maison Dieu will be recommissioned for normal use and has been flushed by Council Officers.
“Council teams have been hard at work since the boil water alert was issued to drain and clean the reservoirs and scour pipework within the affected area,” Ms Hardy said.
“Since the reservoirs were flushed last Thursday and Friday, we’ve been undertaking regular testing across the weekend that showed the water was back to safe levels with no microbial contamination detected.
“On the advice of NSW Health, the boil water alert has now been lifted.
“We advise customers to flush their system by running their external tap for 10 minutes, which will be exempt from water restrictions, before drinking the water.”
Ms Hardy said Council was aware of the concern in the community as a result of the boil water alert, and thousands of bottles of water were distributed to affected residents in response to the situation.
“Council appreciates this situation caused some inconvenience for our customers last week, and we thank you for your patience and understanding,” she said.
A precautionary boil water alert for parts of Singleton has been lifted after NSW Health gave the all clear at a meeting with Singleton Council this morning.
The boil water alert was issued for the Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill on Monday 10 February, and extended to McDougalls Hill on Tuesday 11 February following water sampling results received late Monday 10 February that showed turbidity above and chlorine levels below the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Investigations into the cause of test results indicated that dirt entered the water network during heavy rainfall across 8-9 February.
Council staff worked across the weekend with testing showing that turbidity and chlorine levels had returned to normal.
Katie Hardy, Council’s Manager Water and Sewer Network, said Council staff would doorknock residents with information the boil water alert had been lifted, as well as contact businesses. Customers who collected free bottled water will also be emailed.
Information will be available on Council’s website and Facebook page as well as on the variable message board on Maison Dieu Road.
Customers in the affected areas of The Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill and McDougalls Hill are advised to flush their pipework by running their back outdoor tap for 10 minutes before resuming normal use. Flushing of pipework in properties affected by the boil water alert is exempt from water restrictions.
The standpipe at Maison Dieu will be recommissioned for normal use and has been flushed by Council Officers.
“Council teams have been hard at work since the boil water alert was issued to drain and clean the reservoirs and scour pipework within the affected area,” Ms Hardy said.
“Since the reservoirs were flushed last Thursday and Friday, we’ve been undertaking regular testing across the weekend that showed the water was back to safe levels with no microbial contamination detected.
“On the advice of NSW Health, the boil water alert has now been lifted.
“We advise customers to flush their system by running their external tap for 10 minutes, which will be exempt from water restrictions, before drinking the water.”
Ms Hardy said Council was aware of the concern in the community as a result of the boil water alert, and thousands of bottles of water were distributed to affected residents in response to the situation.
“Council appreciates this situation caused some inconvenience for our customers last week, and we thank you for your patience and understanding,” she said.
A precautionary boil water alert for parts of Singleton has been lifted after NSW Health gave the all clear at a meeting with Singleton Council this morning.
The boil water alert was issued for the Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill on Monday 10 February, and extended to McDougalls Hill on Tuesday 11 February following water sampling results received late Monday 10 February that showed turbidity above and chlorine levels below the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Investigations into the cause of test results indicated that dirt entered the water network during heavy rainfall across 8-9 February.
Council staff worked across the weekend with testing showing that turbidity and chlorine levels had returned to normal.
Katie Hardy, Council’s Manager Water and Sewer Network, said Council staff would doorknock residents with information the boil water alert had been lifted, as well as contact businesses. Customers who collected free bottled water will also be emailed.
Information will be available on Council’s website and Facebook page as well as on the variable message board on Maison Dieu Road.
Customers in the affected areas of The Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill and McDougalls Hill are advised to flush their pipework by running their back outdoor tap for 10 minutes before resuming normal use. Flushing of pipework in properties affected by the boil water alert is exempt from water restrictions.
The standpipe at Maison Dieu will be recommissioned for normal use and has been flushed by Council Officers.
“Council teams have been hard at work since the boil water alert was issued to drain and clean the reservoirs and scour pipework within the affected area,” Ms Hardy said.
“Since the reservoirs were flushed last Thursday and Friday, we’ve been undertaking regular testing across the weekend that showed the water was back to safe levels with no microbial contamination detected.
“On the advice of NSW Health, the boil water alert has now been lifted.
“We advise customers to flush their system by running their external tap for 10 minutes, which will be exempt from water restrictions, before drinking the water.”
Ms Hardy said Council was aware of the concern in the community as a result of the boil water alert, and thousands of bottles of water were distributed to affected residents in response to the situation.
“Council appreciates this situation caused some inconvenience for our customers last week, and we thank you for your patience and understanding,” she said.
Residents across six Maitland suburbs affected by dirty drinking water
Jan 24 2018: https://www.maitlandmercury.com.au/story/5185189/dirty-water-warning/
Maitland’s extreme heat is said to be the cause of dirty tap water affecting resident’s across six of the city’s suburbs.
Hunter Water has confirmed it has received calls from Rutherford, Telarah, Gillieston Heights and Greta residents about water soiling their washing and discolouring their drinking and bath water this week.
Aberglasslyn and Metford residents have also posted comments and photographs on Facebook about their poor water quality, one image showing of a glass of tap water which looked more like a urine specimen.
Aberglasslyn resident Anne-Maree Musgrove posted a picture of one of her bath towels soiled by the discoloured water.
he said she has to leave her taps running for 10 minutes for the discolouration to disappear.
“I saw the colour of the water on the floor of shower and it looked like I was washing off a fake tan,” she said.
“I wasn’t expecting it to stay on my skin and on my towel.”
Michele O’Meley also of Aberglasslyn, cancelled her son’s 16th birthday pool party because of the state of the water used to fill her pool.
She said she will complain to Hunter Water about the poor water quality in her area.
“Our pool guy charged us double the usual fee and we had to keep the water running and the pump running to clear it. It happened on a Saturday and we had a 16th birthday pool party for my son and his mates planned.
“It had to be cancelled and we had to do something away from the water because the water looked disgusting,” she said.
Hunter Water said a small number of customers had experienced discoloured water across some Maitland suburbs.
A company spokesperson said extreme heat had placed high demand on Hunter Water’s system in recent days and as a result of the sudden increase in the rate of water flow, it caused natural sediment in the bottom of the pipes to dislodge and temporarily change the appearance of tap water.
“Discoloured water is usually aesthetic, rather than a health issue, but people should avoid drinking their tap water if it is discoloured,” the spokesperson said.
“Customers can first try clearing their water by turning a tap on full for a few minutes to flush their plumbing.
Residents across six Maitland suburbs affected by dirty drinking water
Jan 24 2018: https://www.maitlandmercury.com.au/story/5185189/dirty-water-warning/
Maitland’s extreme heat is said to be the cause of dirty tap water affecting resident’s across six of the city’s suburbs.
Hunter Water has confirmed it has received calls from Rutherford, Telarah, Gillieston Heights and Greta residents about water soiling their washing and discolouring their drinking and bath water this week.
Aberglasslyn and Metford residents have also posted comments and photographs on Facebook about their poor water quality, one image showing of a glass of tap water which looked more like a urine specimen.
Aberglasslyn resident Anne-Maree Musgrove posted a picture of one of her bath towels soiled by the discoloured water.
he said she has to leave her taps running for 10 minutes for the discolouration to disappear.
“I saw the colour of the water on the floor of shower and it looked like I was washing off a fake tan,” she said.
“I wasn’t expecting it to stay on my skin and on my towel.”
Michele O’Meley also of Aberglasslyn, cancelled her son’s 16th birthday pool party because of the state of the water used to fill her pool.
She said she will complain to Hunter Water about the poor water quality in her area.
“Our pool guy charged us double the usual fee and we had to keep the water running and the pump running to clear it. It happened on a Saturday and we had a 16th birthday pool party for my son and his mates planned.
“It had to be cancelled and we had to do something away from the water because the water looked disgusting,” she said.
Hunter Water said a small number of customers had experienced discoloured water across some Maitland suburbs.
A company spokesperson said extreme heat had placed high demand on Hunter Water’s system in recent days and as a result of the sudden increase in the rate of water flow, it caused natural sediment in the bottom of the pipes to dislodge and temporarily change the appearance of tap water.
“Discoloured water is usually aesthetic, rather than a health issue, but people should avoid drinking their tap water if it is discoloured,” the spokesperson said.
“Customers can first try clearing their water by turning a tap on full for a few minutes to flush their plumbing.
Residents across six Maitland suburbs affected by dirty drinking water
Jan 24 2018: https://www.maitlandmercury.com.au/story/5185189/dirty-water-warning/
Maitland’s extreme heat is said to be the cause of dirty tap water affecting resident’s across six of the city’s suburbs.
Hunter Water has confirmed it has received calls from Rutherford, Telarah, Gillieston Heights and Greta residents about water soiling their washing and discolouring their drinking and bath water this week.
Aberglasslyn and Metford residents have also posted comments and photographs on Facebook about their poor water quality, one image showing of a glass of tap water which looked more like a urine specimen.
Aberglasslyn resident Anne-Maree Musgrove posted a picture of one of her bath towels soiled by the discoloured water.
he said she has to leave her taps running for 10 minutes for the discolouration to disappear.
“I saw the colour of the water on the floor of shower and it looked like I was washing off a fake tan,” she said.
“I wasn’t expecting it to stay on my skin and on my towel.”
Michele O’Meley also of Aberglasslyn, cancelled her son’s 16th birthday pool party because of the state of the water used to fill her pool.
She said she will complain to Hunter Water about the poor water quality in her area.
“Our pool guy charged us double the usual fee and we had to keep the water running and the pump running to clear it. It happened on a Saturday and we had a 16th birthday pool party for my son and his mates planned.
“It had to be cancelled and we had to do something away from the water because the water looked disgusting,” she said.
Hunter Water said a small number of customers had experienced discoloured water across some Maitland suburbs.
A company spokesperson said extreme heat had placed high demand on Hunter Water’s system in recent days and as a result of the sudden increase in the rate of water flow, it caused natural sediment in the bottom of the pipes to dislodge and temporarily change the appearance of tap water.
“Discoloured water is usually aesthetic, rather than a health issue, but people should avoid drinking their tap water if it is discoloured,” the spokesperson said.
“Customers can first try clearing their water by turning a tap on full for a few minutes to flush their plumbing.
Residents across six Maitland suburbs affected by dirty drinking water
Jan 24 2018: https://www.maitlandmercury.com.au/story/5185189/dirty-water-warning/
Maitland’s extreme heat is said to be the cause of dirty tap water affecting resident’s across six of the city’s suburbs.
Hunter Water has confirmed it has received calls from Rutherford, Telarah, Gillieston Heights and Greta residents about water soiling their washing and discolouring their drinking and bath water this week.
Aberglasslyn and Metford residents have also posted comments and photographs on Facebook about their poor water quality, one image showing of a glass of tap water which looked more like a urine specimen.
Aberglasslyn resident Anne-Maree Musgrove posted a picture of one of her bath towels soiled by the discoloured water.
he said she has to leave her taps running for 10 minutes for the discolouration to disappear.
“I saw the colour of the water on the floor of shower and it looked like I was washing off a fake tan,” she said.
“I wasn’t expecting it to stay on my skin and on my towel.”
Michele O’Meley also of Aberglasslyn, cancelled her son’s 16th birthday pool party because of the state of the water used to fill her pool.
She said she will complain to Hunter Water about the poor water quality in her area.
“Our pool guy charged us double the usual fee and we had to keep the water running and the pump running to clear it. It happened on a Saturday and we had a 16th birthday pool party for my son and his mates planned.
“It had to be cancelled and we had to do something away from the water because the water looked disgusting,” she said.
Hunter Water said a small number of customers had experienced discoloured water across some Maitland suburbs.
A company spokesperson said extreme heat had placed high demand on Hunter Water’s system in recent days and as a result of the sudden increase in the rate of water flow, it caused natural sediment in the bottom of the pipes to dislodge and temporarily change the appearance of tap water.
“Discoloured water is usually aesthetic, rather than a health issue, but people should avoid drinking their tap water if it is discoloured,” the spokesperson said.
“Customers can first try clearing their water by turning a tap on full for a few minutes to flush their plumbing.
Residents across six Maitland suburbs affected by dirty drinking water
Jan 24 2018: https://www.maitlandmercury.com.au/story/5185189/dirty-water-warning/
Maitland’s extreme heat is said to be the cause of dirty tap water affecting resident’s across six of the city’s suburbs.
Hunter Water has confirmed it has received calls from Rutherford, Telarah, Gillieston Heights and Greta residents about water soiling their washing and discolouring their drinking and bath water this week.
Aberglasslyn and Metford residents have also posted comments and photographs on Facebook about their poor water quality, one image showing of a glass of tap water which looked more like a urine specimen.
Aberglasslyn resident Anne-Maree Musgrove posted a picture of one of her bath towels soiled by the discoloured water.
he said she has to leave her taps running for 10 minutes for the discolouration to disappear.
“I saw the colour of the water on the floor of shower and it looked like I was washing off a fake tan,” she said.
“I wasn’t expecting it to stay on my skin and on my towel.”
Michele O’Meley also of Aberglasslyn, cancelled her son’s 16th birthday pool party because of the state of the water used to fill her pool.
She said she will complain to Hunter Water about the poor water quality in her area.
“Our pool guy charged us double the usual fee and we had to keep the water running and the pump running to clear it. It happened on a Saturday and we had a 16th birthday pool party for my son and his mates planned.
“It had to be cancelled and we had to do something away from the water because the water looked disgusting,” she said.
Hunter Water said a small number of customers had experienced discoloured water across some Maitland suburbs.
A company spokesperson said extreme heat had placed high demand on Hunter Water’s system in recent days and as a result of the sudden increase in the rate of water flow, it caused natural sediment in the bottom of the pipes to dislodge and temporarily change the appearance of tap water.
“Discoloured water is usually aesthetic, rather than a health issue, but people should avoid drinking their tap water if it is discoloured,” the spokesperson said.
“Customers can first try clearing their water by turning a tap on full for a few minutes to flush their plumbing.
Council released a statement on Tuesday afternoon reiterating that “despite current high levels of turbidity following recent rain events which has led to some discolouration, the town water is completely safe to drink.”
Council has also said they have been in consultation with the NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment and the NSW Department of Health and have modified their treatment process and are continuing to monitor water quality.
“While the water may have a different appearance from the drinking water usually produced at the Muswellbrook water treatment plant the water remains well within the criteria established under the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,”
“As turbidity levels in the river are reduced the drinking water will return to its normal colouration.”
“Council’s Water and Wastewater operations team tests the drinking water supply regularly throughout the day to ensure the town water is safe to drink and complies fully with Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Test results are also reported to the NSW Department of Health.”
“Council’s dedicated operations team has a proud history of providing high quality drinking water to Muswellbrook, Denman and Sandy Hollow and the rural community through bulk water supply.”
The Aussie towns without clean water to drink and shower in
March 26 2019: https://www.9news.com.au/national/weather-nsw-the-aussie-towns-without-clean-water-to-drink-and-shower-in/b93ed556-313b-4527-af83-a586f5f76b8a
When you turn on the tap in Louth what comes out looks like something you might see in a third world country, not rural NSW.
“The water is muddy and brown and it stinks. I usually describe it as smelling like rotten eggs,” Jasmine Kew, who lives and works at the pub in the tiny town, west of Bourne, told nine.com.au.
The water is drawn from a stagnant pool of the Darling River, which stopped flowing months ago, and where the government in December identified toxic levels of blue-green algae.
But with supplies from rainwater tanks dwindling, the town’s 35 or so residents have little choice but to shower in the stuff and wash their clothes with it.
“You just feel even dirtier than when you got in the shower. I have been getting rashes on me. I usually start itching when I get in the shower,” Ms Kew, 22, said.
“And I can’t wash my hair in the water because it is so dirty.”
At Louth’s pub, called Shindy’s Inn, bottled drinking water is trucked in and the precious rainwater is used to make ice, cook with and wash the beer glasses.
“The water is not safe to drink. I wouldn’t drink it. I tell people that stay here in our cabins not to drink it and I give them bottled water,” owner Kathy Barnes said.
Walkley Award winning photographer Jenny Evans travelled up from Sydney and stayed at Shindy’s Inn over summer in January.
“Unless you go there you can’t understand what these people are truly going through,” she said.
“My husband and I were in Louth for three or four days. When we arrived it was one of those days where it was 40-50 degrees and I said, ‘I’m just going to pop in and have a shower’. Everyone laughed and I didn’t know why.
“But then I turned the tap on and it was disgusting. It was this putrid brown, and boiling hot.”
“I’m a city girl born and bred. I had no idea. I was really shocked. Can you imagine someone from Sydney turning on a tap and the same disgusting brown water coming out, and then getting told it may also be toxic?”
In January, the mass fish kill at Menindee near Broken Hill, which saw up to a million fish die from an algal bloom, made international headlines and put a national spotlight on the state of the once mighty Darling River.
NSW is suffering from its worst drought on record, but the state and federal governments are also facing growing claims the environmental disaster is a result of man-made water mismanagement.
Louth is just one of the small towns and vast farming properties dotted along the Lower Darling River affected by toxic algae and chronic water shortages. Here locals say their basic needs for drinking and showering water are not being met.
About 100km downstream from Louth in Tilpa, the Darling River is also bone dry.
The town gets its water pumped from a weir 5km up the river where some dregs remain.
Without rain, Tilpa locals estimate they have just two to three weeks left before their taps run dry.
Tilpa Hotel manager Sharon Mahoney may soon have no pub to run.
“Once the water supply is gone it will be all over. You can’t run a pub without water because you have got no water to flush the toilets, no showers or anything.”
In the meantime, the town water in Tilpa, which is currently on an orange alert level for blue-green algae, is not fit for human consumption, Ms Mahoney said.
“We have got three lots of filters and an ultra-red violet light that the water goes through before it comes here but it’s still cloudy as it comes out. If you run a bath it’s brown,” she said.
“No, you couldn’t drink it, it has an odour to it. I won’t even brush my teeth in it. I brush my teeth with bottled water.”
A recent trip from Tilpa to Sydney, provided a stark and almost novel comparison, Ms Mahoney said.
“We have got a son in Sydney and we were just there and it was quite strange actually just drinking the water out of the tap. We found that really weird.”
Chrissy and Bill Ashby own a third-generation cattle property Trevallyn, between Menindee and Bourke.
The property sits on 65km of river frontage, which for the past four months has been on the highest level of algae alert after the water turned a fluorescent shade of green.
For months, the couple have been drinking bottled water bought by crowdfunders.
Unable to shower using river water, the Ashbys used rainwater supplies until they became critically low. They then bought a truckload of water, with the local Central Darling Shire Council contributing the cost of the freight.
Mr Ashby said the condition of the river on his property was soul destroying.
“The water has got a real smell to it at the minute. It’s just the algae dying and fish dying in it and all of that. It’s not good.”
Everyone in the area was suffering and the provision of safe drinking and showering water should be a basic right, he said.
“I call it an essential service really. What we live off here is the river. And if there is no water left here, or the water that is left in there is disgusting and you can’t use it, then there is something seriously wrong.”
Mr Ashby said he believed things really went downhill for the Murray Darling river system in 2012, when the state government changed the water-sharing plan to allow irrigators to pump even during low-flow periods.
“You need those medium-to-low flows to continue on down the river for stock, domestic townships and for the environment,” he said.
Over the weekend, anger over the government’s water management played out at the polls in the state election.
The vast sprawling seat of Barwon, which is almost the same size of Germany, had been held by the Nationals since 1950, but was one of four NSW seats lost by the Coalition on election day.
Roy Butler, from the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party, won the seat in a massive swing and has vowed to push for the implementation of a 10-point strategy for the Murray-Darling River he has developed.
Chrissy Ashby said the election result was a direct message to the government that it needed to do better.
“I think the National Party completely underestimated the minority people out here and the voice that we could have,” Mrs Ashby said.
“The fish kill in Menindee, although it was horrendous, definitely highlighted to Australia and the world what we have been trying to voice for quite some time.”
October 2007: The residents were complaining bitterly about their town bore water and the protesting Curlewis local postmistress had actually been featured on channel 9’s A Current Affair’s (television) programme.
Curlewis is supplied with water from groundwater aquifers’ located on the Liverpool Plains approx 8 km from town. The water is extremely hard and analysis of the supply indicates high levels of sodium, chloride, total dissolved solids and total hardness. The water supply was treated with Sodium Hypochlorite as a disinfectant.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Curlewis (NSW) Total Dissolved Solids
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Curlewis (NSW) – Chloride
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Curlewis (NSW) – Sodium
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Baradine (NSW) – Iron
21/5/18: Baradine (NSW) – Iron 0.6mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Baradine (NSW) – Aluminium
21/5/18: Baradine (NSW) – Aluminium 1.07mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Chemicals in the Murrumbidgee River are responsible for a funny taste and smell in Wagga tap water, according to a report from Riverina Water.
Riverina Water engineering director Bede Spannagle said they detected traces of the compounds Geosmin and 2-Methylisoborneol, but reassured residents that neither was dangerous to human health.
However, Mr Spannagle said the chemical compounds could cause an earthy flavour and odour, especially during the warmer summer months.
“We had some complaints about the water and we did our own investigation, and we also asked WaterNSW to do an investigation into the water issue,” Mr Spannagle said.
“It’s only surface water, about 30 per cent of our supply. It’ll be at certain times of the year, normally when it’s hotter when that grows in the water. Winter or cold or raining dilutes it in the source, so you won’t taste it.”
July 1 2013: https://www.westernadvocate.com.au/story/1603983/updated-tap-water-is-now-safe-to-drink/
UPDATE: Bathurst Regional Council have lifted the Boil Water Alert issued last Friday, after tests revealed that water quality was within safe drinking water guidelines.
This means there is no longer a need for residents on the town water network to use boiled water for general consumption.
Testing by Council staff overnight on Friday and Saturday showed water quality at all affected reservoirs around the network was within safe drinking water guidelines.
These results have now been verified by independent laboratory testing approved by the NSW Department of Health.
Council wishes to assure residents that water quality in the water supply system will continue to be closely monitored.
Bathurst Regional Council General manager David Sherley thanked local residents for their patience.
“We understand this issue caused a considerable disruption to some residents and we sincerely apologise for the inconvenience.
“While there has been some genuine concern in the community, at no time have tests over the last few days showed a serious level of impact on the quality of the water in the Bathurst town network.”
JUNE 29: BATHURST Regional Council is continuing to warn residents not to drink any tap water until further notice.
Council experienced a problem at its water treatment plant on Thursday night where due to a failure in an automatic alarm system the water was not adequatley filtered.
Council is awaiting water test results which it hopes will be available in the next 24 hours.
Until the results are all clear residents are advised as a precaution to use cooled boiled or bottled water.
General Manager of Bathurst Base Hospital David Wright said yesterday that members of the public experiencing symptoms that could be related to the boiled water alert should contact their GP.
He said if a person’s symptoms were severe they should go to the hospital.
Earlier this afternoon a Bathurst Base Hospital spokesperson said the hospital had seen no presentations of symptoms that would be related to drinking contaminated water.
JUNE 28: BATHURST Regional Council is warning residents not to drink any tap water until further notice.
Council experienced a problem at its water treatment plant on Thursday night where due to a failure in an automatic alarm system the water was not adequatley filtered.
You may drink the water if it has been continuously boiled for at least one minute. Water should then be allowed to cool and stored in a clean container with a lid and refrigerated.
Bathurst Regional Council General Manager David Sherley assures residents Council is working to alleviate the problem.
“When the issue was discovered at around 7am this morning, Council staff immediately began adding extra chlorine to the network which is working to alleviate the problem.
“In the meantime residents may see some discoloured water or notice a slight odour from their taps.
“In line with recommendations from the NSW Department of Health, precautions should be taken until further notice.
“Council does take this issue very seriously and has issued the boiled water message accordingly as a precautionary measure.
“It is hoped the problem will be rectified within the next 48 hours but will advise residents through local media, Council’s website and Facebook pages as soon as we have the all clear.”
Water treatment problems at Farmers Creek Supply System causes bigger issues
March 8 2022: https://www.lithgowmercury.com.au/story/7648730/lithgow-residents-to-boil-water-before-consuming-it/
Lithgow City Council is asking Lithgow residents to boil their water before drinking or food preparation.
Recent conditions, including excessive rainfall and highly turbid water in the catchment, have caused problems with water treatment making drinking water in the Farmers Creek supply system unsafe.
South Bowenfels, Bowenfels, Littleton, South Littleton, McKellars Park, Oakey Park, Sheedys Gully, Cobar Park, Morts Estate, Vale of Clwydd and Hermitage Flat
Customers in these suburbs are advised to boil water prior to use for drinking or food preparation until they are notified that this measure is no longer required.
Water treatment problems at Farmers Creek Supply System causes bigger issues
March 8 2022: https://www.lithgowmercury.com.au/story/7648730/lithgow-residents-to-boil-water-before-consuming-it/
Lithgow City Council is asking Lithgow residents to boil their water before drinking or food preparation.
Recent conditions, including excessive rainfall and highly turbid water in the catchment, have caused problems with water treatment making drinking water in the Farmers Creek supply system unsafe.
South Bowenfels, Bowenfels, Littleton, South Littleton, McKellars Park, Oakey Park, Sheedys Gully, Cobar Park, Morts Estate, Vale of Clwydd and Hermitage Flat
Customers in these suburbs are advised to boil water prior to use for drinking or food preparation until they are notified that this measure is no longer required.
Water treatment problems at Farmers Creek Supply System causes bigger issues
March 8 2022: https://www.lithgowmercury.com.au/story/7648730/lithgow-residents-to-boil-water-before-consuming-it/
Lithgow City Council is asking Lithgow residents to boil their water before drinking or food preparation.
Recent conditions, including excessive rainfall and highly turbid water in the catchment, have caused problems with water treatment making drinking water in the Farmers Creek supply system unsafe.
South Bowenfels, Bowenfels, Littleton, South Littleton, McKellars Park, Oakey Park, Sheedys Gully, Cobar Park, Morts Estate, Vale of Clwydd and Hermitage Flat
Customers in these suburbs are advised to boil water prior to use for drinking or food preparation until they are notified that this measure is no longer required.
Water treatment problems at Farmers Creek Supply System causes bigger issues
March 8 2022: https://www.lithgowmercury.com.au/story/7648730/lithgow-residents-to-boil-water-before-consuming-it/
Lithgow City Council is asking Lithgow residents to boil their water before drinking or food preparation.
Recent conditions, including excessive rainfall and highly turbid water in the catchment, have caused problems with water treatment making drinking water in the Farmers Creek supply system unsafe.
South Bowenfels, Bowenfels, Littleton, South Littleton, McKellars Park, Oakey Park, Sheedys Gully, Cobar Park, Morts Estate, Vale of Clwydd and Hermitage Flat
Customers in these suburbs are advised to boil water prior to use for drinking or food preparation until they are notified that this measure is no longer required.
Water treatment problems at Farmers Creek Supply System causes bigger issues
March 8 2022: https://www.lithgowmercury.com.au/story/7648730/lithgow-residents-to-boil-water-before-consuming-it/
Lithgow City Council is asking Lithgow residents to boil their water before drinking or food preparation.
Recent conditions, including excessive rainfall and highly turbid water in the catchment, have caused problems with water treatment making drinking water in the Farmers Creek supply system unsafe.
South Bowenfels, Bowenfels, Littleton, South Littleton, McKellars Park, Oakey Park, Sheedys Gully, Cobar Park, Morts Estate, Vale of Clwydd and Hermitage Flat
Customers in these suburbs are advised to boil water prior to use for drinking or food preparation until they are notified that this measure is no longer required.
Water treatment problems at Farmers Creek Supply System causes bigger issues
March 8 2022: https://www.lithgowmercury.com.au/story/7648730/lithgow-residents-to-boil-water-before-consuming-it/
Lithgow City Council is asking Lithgow residents to boil their water before drinking or food preparation.
Recent conditions, including excessive rainfall and highly turbid water in the catchment, have caused problems with water treatment making drinking water in the Farmers Creek supply system unsafe.
South Bowenfels, Bowenfels, Littleton, South Littleton, McKellars Park, Oakey Park, Sheedys Gully, Cobar Park, Morts Estate, Vale of Clwydd and Hermitage Flat
Customers in these suburbs are advised to boil water prior to use for drinking or food preparation until they are notified that this measure is no longer required.
Water treatment problems at Farmers Creek Supply System causes bigger issues
March 8 2022: https://www.lithgowmercury.com.au/story/7648730/lithgow-residents-to-boil-water-before-consuming-it/
Lithgow City Council is asking Lithgow residents to boil their water before drinking or food preparation.
Recent conditions, including excessive rainfall and highly turbid water in the catchment, have caused problems with water treatment making drinking water in the Farmers Creek supply system unsafe.
South Bowenfels, Bowenfels, Littleton, South Littleton, McKellars Park, Oakey Park, Sheedys Gully, Cobar Park, Morts Estate, Vale of Clwydd and Hermitage Flat
Customers in these suburbs are advised to boil water prior to use for drinking or food preparation until they are notified that this measure is no longer required.
Parkes Shire Council has received multiple calls from residents about a change in taste and odour to the town’s drinking water, and staff would like to reassure the community all the water samples taken have passed bench-top testing.
The calls came in to council over the weekend.
In a statement issued by council on Wednesday, council said Parkes’ drinking water is assured under a Drinking Water Management System, which is required under the NSW Public Health Act 2010.
It requires continual monitoring of drinking water production at the Parkes Water Treatment Plant.
“From Friday, February 12 through until Monday, February 15, there was no exceedance on any of the real-time monitored indicators and all water samples taken in the reticulation passed bench-top testing,” the statement said.
“The temporary change in taste experienced by the community is due to a higher proportion of dam water being used. Naturally occurring chemicals in dam water due to catchment run-off and microbial activity can give the water an earthy taste.”
Parkes Shire Mayor Cr Ken Keith OAM said council was using a higher proportion of dam water as a result of the abundant supply in Lake Endeavour at the moment.
“This is due to very low demand from users, as a result of the excess rainfall we have recently received,” he said.
“The Parkes Water Treatment Plant draws water from three sources – the Lachlan River, the bore fields, and Lake Endeavour Dam.
“The raw water is mixed, filtered and disinfected and the potable water is sent to reservoirs waiting for you to turn on your tap.
“Council operators test the drinking water network daily to ensure the water supply meets the requirements of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and is safe to drink.”
Council’s Director of Infrastructure Andrew Francis confirmed the aesthetic quality of the water, taste and odour are not monitored because they are subjective.
“Meaning that members of the community taste in different ways and at different concentrations, and cause no harm,” he said.
“We appreciate the community providing their feedback on the taste and odour, as it helps us to identify the source and potential compounds for testing.
“To improve the aesthetic nature of the water, Council Operations staff have reduced the flow to the Water Treatment Plant from the dam and have increased the flow from the bores to dilute the taste causing compounds.”
Council said it continues to strengthen the shire’s water security through a number of initiatives, and draws on various water sources including dams, river, bores and recycled water.
“I would also like to take this opportunity to thank the local community for their efforts in conserving water, which has enabled us to effectively manage our water supply and security,” Cr Keith added.
Bega Valley Shire Council issues boil-water notice from Brogo to Bermagui
11 Jan 22 (aboutregional.com.au)
The combination of heavy rainfall and summer visitors to southeast NSW has led to Bega Valley Shire Council issuing a boil-water notice for users connected to the Brogo-Bermagui water supply.
Boiling water before use for drinking, food preparation, teeth cleaning and ice-making is now considered essential for water users in Quaama, Cobargo, Bermagui, Beauty Point, Fairhaven, Wallaga Lake, Wallaga Lake Heights, Wallaga Lake Koori Village and Akolele.
Water issues are not new to Bega Valley communities, but they have been somewhat mitigated in recent times by the temporary water treatment facility in Brogo.
Bega Valley Shire Council’s water and sewer services manager, Chris Best, said the Brogo facility is struggling to manage the current increase in demand, and his team has been “working around the clock” since heavy rain on Thursday, 6 January, 2022.
“With more visitors in the area during the summer break, it has reached the point where the treatment plant can no longer cope with the higher demand,” he said.
“The temporary plant has reduced the need for boil-water notices since introducing flocculation technology, but even this has its limits which is why we are in the process of constructing a permanent treatment and filtration plant at the same site.”
Mr Best said that when the permanent facility is up and running – expected in late 2022 – the Brogo-Bermagui water supply will no longer require boiling after heavy rain events.
“We have previously avoided boil-water notices by carting water from our southern supply, however given the increase in usage at this time of year, this is currently not possible,” he said.
“Our water team will continue with a regular program of testing water from the Brogo River source, which is known for high turbidity levels, particularly following the Black Summer bushfires which heavily impacted the catchment.”
All other water supply in the Bega Valley Shire is currently unaffected.
Bega Valley Shire Council issues boil-water notice from Brogo to Bermagui
11 Jan 22 (aboutregional.com.au)
The combination of heavy rainfall and summer visitors to southeast NSW has led to Bega Valley Shire Council issuing a boil-water notice for users connected to the Brogo-Bermagui water supply.
Boiling water before use for drinking, food preparation, teeth cleaning and ice-making is now considered essential for water users in Quaama, Cobargo, Bermagui, Beauty Point, Fairhaven, Wallaga Lake, Wallaga Lake Heights, Wallaga Lake Koori Village and Akolele.
Water issues are not new to Bega Valley communities, but they have been somewhat mitigated in recent times by the temporary water treatment facility in Brogo.
Bega Valley Shire Council’s water and sewer services manager, Chris Best, said the Brogo facility is struggling to manage the current increase in demand, and his team has been “working around the clock” since heavy rain on Thursday, 6 January, 2022.
“With more visitors in the area during the summer break, it has reached the point where the treatment plant can no longer cope with the higher demand,” he said.
“The temporary plant has reduced the need for boil-water notices since introducing flocculation technology, but even this has its limits which is why we are in the process of constructing a permanent treatment and filtration plant at the same site.”
Mr Best said that when the permanent facility is up and running – expected in late 2022 – the Brogo-Bermagui water supply will no longer require boiling after heavy rain events.
“We have previously avoided boil-water notices by carting water from our southern supply, however given the increase in usage at this time of year, this is currently not possible,” he said.
“Our water team will continue with a regular program of testing water from the Brogo River source, which is known for high turbidity levels, particularly following the Black Summer bushfires which heavily impacted the catchment.”
All other water supply in the Bega Valley Shire is currently unaffected.
Bega Valley Shire Council issues boil-water notice from Brogo to Bermagui
11 Jan 22 (aboutregional.com.au)
The combination of heavy rainfall and summer visitors to southeast NSW has led to Bega Valley Shire Council issuing a boil-water notice for users connected to the Brogo-Bermagui water supply.
Boiling water before use for drinking, food preparation, teeth cleaning and ice-making is now considered essential for water users in Quaama, Cobargo, Bermagui, Beauty Point, Fairhaven, Wallaga Lake, Wallaga Lake Heights, Wallaga Lake Koori Village and Akolele.
Water issues are not new to Bega Valley communities, but they have been somewhat mitigated in recent times by the temporary water treatment facility in Brogo.
Bega Valley Shire Council’s water and sewer services manager, Chris Best, said the Brogo facility is struggling to manage the current increase in demand, and his team has been “working around the clock” since heavy rain on Thursday, 6 January, 2022.
“With more visitors in the area during the summer break, it has reached the point where the treatment plant can no longer cope with the higher demand,” he said.
“The temporary plant has reduced the need for boil-water notices since introducing flocculation technology, but even this has its limits which is why we are in the process of constructing a permanent treatment and filtration plant at the same site.”
Mr Best said that when the permanent facility is up and running – expected in late 2022 – the Brogo-Bermagui water supply will no longer require boiling after heavy rain events.
“We have previously avoided boil-water notices by carting water from our southern supply, however given the increase in usage at this time of year, this is currently not possible,” he said.
“Our water team will continue with a regular program of testing water from the Brogo River source, which is known for high turbidity levels, particularly following the Black Summer bushfires which heavily impacted the catchment.”
All other water supply in the Bega Valley Shire is currently unaffected.
A Boil Water Alert for Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla has been lifted after testing confirmed the water supply is safe to drink.
The townships were placed on a Boil Water Alert on Thursday, March 10 following a storm event that increased turbidity of water entering the Rylstone Water Treatment Plant.
Council has undertaken daily sampling since the alert was put into place and results from an external lab confirm the water supply now meets Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
In consultation with NSW Health, Council has lifted the Boil Water Alert and will continue to monitor the system.
This means residents in Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla can safely consume water direct from their taps for drinking and cooking without having to boil it first.
Council would like to thank residents for their patience and co-operation.
Recent storms have caused problems with water treatment at the Rylstone Water Treatment Plan making drinking water in the Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla areas unsafe.
A Boil Water Alert for Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla has been lifted after testing confirmed the water supply is safe to drink.
The townships were placed on a Boil Water Alert on Thursday, March 10 following a storm event that increased turbidity of water entering the Rylstone Water Treatment Plant.
Council has undertaken daily sampling since the alert was put into place and results from an external lab confirm the water supply now meets Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
In consultation with NSW Health, Council has lifted the Boil Water Alert and will continue to monitor the system.
This means residents in Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla can safely consume water direct from their taps for drinking and cooking without having to boil it first.
Council would like to thank residents for their patience and co-operation.
Recent storms have caused problems with water treatment at the Rylstone Water Treatment Plan making drinking water in the Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla areas unsafe.
A Boil Water Alert for Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla has been lifted after testing confirmed the water supply is safe to drink.
The townships were placed on a Boil Water Alert on Thursday, March 10 following a storm event that increased turbidity of water entering the Rylstone Water Treatment Plant.
Council has undertaken daily sampling since the alert was put into place and results from an external lab confirm the water supply now meets Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
In consultation with NSW Health, Council has lifted the Boil Water Alert and will continue to monitor the system.
This means residents in Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla can safely consume water direct from their taps for drinking and cooking without having to boil it first.
Council would like to thank residents for their patience and co-operation.
Recent storms have caused problems with water treatment at the Rylstone Water Treatment Plan making drinking water in the Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla areas unsafe.
A Boil Water Alert for Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla has been lifted after testing confirmed the water supply is safe to drink.
The townships were placed on a Boil Water Alert on Thursday, March 10 following a storm event that increased turbidity of water entering the Rylstone Water Treatment Plant.
Council has undertaken daily sampling since the alert was put into place and results from an external lab confirm the water supply now meets Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
In consultation with NSW Health, Council has lifted the Boil Water Alert and will continue to monitor the system.
This means residents in Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla can safely consume water direct from their taps for drinking and cooking without having to boil it first.
Council would like to thank residents for their patience and co-operation.
Recent storms have caused problems with water treatment at the Rylstone Water Treatment Plan making drinking water in the Rylstone, Kandos, Charbon and Clandulla areas unsafe.
The list included schools in the New England, Central West, Riverina, Coffs Harbour and Newcastle regions.
The Department of Education confirmed there were 47 schools — one more than was listed in the report — requiring bottled water.
Opposition Education spokeswoman Prue Car said the situation was “concerning”.
“We’ve got more than 40 schools across the state that are relying on bottled water because they don’t have permanent access to safe drinking water,” she said.
“While we accept there are water access challenges, particularly across regional NSW, we are worried this could have impacts on children.”
Limited options
The principal of Carrathool Public School in the western Riverina, Mary-Ann Headon, said large bottles of water were delivered more than 200 kilometres from Wagga Wagga to the school, which had five students.
“This started before I arrived here five years ago, but the department deemed that the water, the potable water that comes from a water tank or some other source that’s not filtered, may not be suitable for drinking,” she said.
“There is bore water available, but some also buy the bottled water, particularly if they don’t like the taste of the bore water.”
Ms Headon said the school had a rainwater tank, but the education department deemed it, and the bore water supply, unsuitable for students to drink.
“I would not particularly like to drink the rainwater around here, simply because of the amount of pollutants that are sprayed,” she said.
“We have a safe water supply as it is, so changing back to the rainwater seems a bit unnecessary.”
Ms Headon said the process of getting water delivered was “really quite easy from our end”.
“I think the education department is doing a really good job providing us a safe water source,” she said.
“I know [council staff] monitor the water quality, but for a town of our size I don’t think it’s overly feasible getting water from the river and treating that.”
Basic amenity’
Federation of Parents and Citizens Associations of NSW Riverina representative Saba Nabi said she was “surprised” by the situation.
“In this day and age, I feel that all schools in NSW should have access to potable water irrespective of their location,” she said.
“I mean, this is a basic amenity and I understand and I feel for the schools and the kids.
“I really wish that the department [would come] up with a very permanent solution to something very alarming.”
A NSW Department of Education spokesperson said in some schools access to potable water “was not possible”.
“In these instances the department supplies them with access to safe drinking water,” they said.
“The department currently supplies 47 NSW public schools with bottled water.
“Bottled water may be supplied at schools based on individual circumstances.
NSW residents urged to boil tap water as expert warns catastrophic floods could lead to raw sewage contamination
March 2 2022: https://www.skynews.com.au/australia-news/nsw-residents-urged-to-boil-tap-water-as-expert-warns-catastrophic-floods-could-lead-to-raw-sewage-contamination/news-story/c8b18d1b00400784edcc81a9645e0a56
New South Wales residents have been urged to boil their tap water as wild weather and heavy rain inundate the state, contaminating flood water with raw sewage.
NSW Health is urging residents in parts of the state to avoid drinking unboiled tap water as wild weather and flash flooding continues across Australia’s east coast.
Record levels of rain have inundated parts of Queensland and NSW as heavy downpours engulf the east coast – flooding homes, breaking sewage systems and leaving cars submerged.
A boil water alert has been issued for residents in Richmond Valley Council (Casino and surrounds) and Tweed Shire council (Uki and South Murwillumbah/Dunbible).
Director of the Australian Graduate School of Engineering at UNSW Professor Stuart Khan says floodwaters inundating these areas are “almost always” highly contaminated.
“Floodwaters contain lots of organic carbon and sediment, which is picked up from erosion of riverbanks and other overland flow,” he told SkyNews.com.au.
“In urban areas, floods fill sewers and cause them to overflow, so flood waters also quickly become contaminated with raw sewage.
“When this occurs, bacteria and viruses from sewage create public health risks for anyone who comes into contact with untreated flood waters.”
Prof Khan says anyone who comes into contact with untreated flood waters is at risk of contracting illnesses including gastro, skin infections and ear infections.
The northern NSW town of Mullumbimby is experiencing a water shortage after its water treatment plant was knocked out by catastrophic floods.
The Byron Shire Council says they are working to tank fresh water supplies into the town but encourages residents to “heed to water restrictions”.
Prof Khan says the demand for clean water can be “very high” as parts of the state clean up following the deluge.
“When reduced water supply occurs at the same time as increased water demand, this exacerbates the risk of shortages,” he said.
“Any drinking water supply that significantly loses pressure during a flood is at risk of contamination by floodwaters.
“If there is concern that this may have occurred, people should avoid drinking tap water unless they are able to boil it first.”
NSW Health says water used for drinking or food preparation should be brought to a rolling boil and allowed to cool completely before refrigerating in a clean container with a lid.
Bottled water or cool boiled water should be used for drinking, washing uncooked food (salad, fruit), making ice, cleaning teeth, gargling and for pet’s drinking water.
Dishes should be washed in hot soapy water or in a dishwasher and children should take bottled water or cool boiled water to school.
Boil Water Alert Lifted for Bray Park, affected parts of Murwillumbah and out to Crystal Creek
After consulting NSW Health, Tweed Shire Council advises all residents in Bray Park, Murwillumbah and out to Crystal Creek that tap water is now safe to drink.
This applies immediately.
Testing confirms the water supply system has been filled with freshly treated water that is safe.
There is no longer a public health concern over the quality of drinking water, and it is now considered safe for all typical uses including drinking, preparing food and beverages, personal washing, dishwashing, laundry purposes and flushing toilets.
Council has worked closely with NSW Health in the past 48 hours to resolve the situation as quickly as possible.
To protect the health of the community, our crews have emptied the Glencoe Reservoir at North Arm, treated the reservoir with chlorine and refilled the tank. They have also flushed the watermains in the area to reintroduce safe, clean water to the local water supply system.
Scientists from the NATA-accredited Tweed Laboratory Centre have tested the tap water at 6 sites and have confirmed it meets the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and is safe to drink.
Before drinking water, residents should flush out affected water from their pipes with running water for 2 to 3 minutes, including the tap most distant from their water meter, which is usually in backyards.
NSW residents urged to boil tap water as expert warns catastrophic floods could lead to raw sewage contamination
March 2 2022: https://www.skynews.com.au/australia-news/nsw-residents-urged-to-boil-tap-water-as-expert-warns-catastrophic-floods-could-lead-to-raw-sewage-contamination/news-story/c8b18d1b00400784edcc81a9645e0a56
New South Wales residents have been urged to boil their tap water as wild weather and heavy rain inundate the state, contaminating flood water with raw sewage.
NSW Health is urging residents in parts of the state to avoid drinking unboiled tap water as wild weather and flash flooding continues across Australia’s east coast.
Record levels of rain have inundated parts of Queensland and NSW as heavy downpours engulf the east coast – flooding homes, breaking sewage systems and leaving cars submerged.
A boil water alert has been issued for residents in Richmond Valley Council (Casino and surrounds) and Tweed Shire council (Uki and South Murwillumbah/Dunbible).
Director of the Australian Graduate School of Engineering at UNSW Professor Stuart Khan says floodwaters inundating these areas are “almost always” highly contaminated.
“Floodwaters contain lots of organic carbon and sediment, which is picked up from erosion of riverbanks and other overland flow,” he told SkyNews.com.au.
“In urban areas, floods fill sewers and cause them to overflow, so flood waters also quickly become contaminated with raw sewage.
“When this occurs, bacteria and viruses from sewage create public health risks for anyone who comes into contact with untreated flood waters.”
Prof Khan says anyone who comes into contact with untreated flood waters is at risk of contracting illnesses including gastro, skin infections and ear infections.
The northern NSW town of Mullumbimby is experiencing a water shortage after its water treatment plant was knocked out by catastrophic floods.
The Byron Shire Council says they are working to tank fresh water supplies into the town but encourages residents to “heed to water restrictions”.
Prof Khan says the demand for clean water can be “very high” as parts of the state clean up following the deluge.
“When reduced water supply occurs at the same time as increased water demand, this exacerbates the risk of shortages,” he said.
“Any drinking water supply that significantly loses pressure during a flood is at risk of contamination by floodwaters.
“If there is concern that this may have occurred, people should avoid drinking tap water unless they are able to boil it first.”
NSW Health says water used for drinking or food preparation should be brought to a rolling boil and allowed to cool completely before refrigerating in a clean container with a lid.
Bottled water or cool boiled water should be used for drinking, washing uncooked food (salad, fruit), making ice, cleaning teeth, gargling and for pet’s drinking water.
Dishes should be washed in hot soapy water or in a dishwasher and children should take bottled water or cool boiled water to school.
Marulan presses Goulburn Mulwaree Council to fix water ‘woes’
January 14 2022. https://www.goulburnpost.com.au/story/7579811/dirty-smelly-water-is-making-people-sick-residents-complain/
A Marulan resident is paying up to $50 a week on drinking water to replace what she claims is dirty and smelly flow through household taps.
Kelly Vinken has joined a growing chorus of people complaining about the town’s ‘dirty tap water.’ The single mother of two says more urgent action is needed to fix the problem.
“I’ve been here in Marulan for three years and it’s been bad the whole time,” she said.
“Some days are worse than others. If we have a storm it has a really strong smell like pond water. It’s very distinct, like a mould smell.”
The single mother of two children, aged 11 and 12, said she was spending $30 to $50 a week on water for drinking and cooking from the local supermarket.
“When I first moved here, I drank the tap water and didn’t understand why I felt sick. Then I stopped and felt better straight away.”
People also felt “dirty” after bathing in it and yellow stains were left on baths and showers, she claimed.
However the council’s utilities director, Marina Hollands, said the resource met all Australian drinking water standards for health.
“NSW Health also receives samples from the plant that they analyse independently that meet the Australian drinking water requirements,” she said.
Ms Vinken conceded that some residents did drink the water but it made her family sick. Many new residents were unhappy with the quality and had aired their grievances on social media. She did not understand why the council couldn’t grant rebates on water rates.
“Quite a few people are upset about it, especially those moving into the area who have kids,” she said.
“We all understand about hard water but you can’t drink it. Buying that much water on a single wage is difficult.
“…It’s a basic human right to have decent drinking water, especially in a hot climate.”
Ms Vinken, like others, has taken the matter up with the council. Cr Bob Kirk advised her of plans for an $8 million upgrade of the town’s water treatment plant, due for completion by December, 2023.
He and general manager Warwick Bennett updated the community on this and the $12 million sewage treatment plant upgrade at a Marulan Chamber of Commerce organised meeting on December 18. Some 120 people attended.
Cr Kirk told The Post the water quality issues were not new but there had been renewed criticism and feedback in recent time.
“I thought the message was getting through. We’ve had a lot of information out there,” he said.
Cr Kirk said as staff had stood by the water’s drinking standard, any rebate on charges would require deep consideration. He believed newer residents were the people asking for this.
Mrs Hollands told The Post that residents should contact the council if they had water quality issues.
“We need to know about specific problems in order to address them,” she said in a statement.
“We understand that Marulan residents are frustrated with the current situation, however the council is working towards a long term, robust solution that will deal with the range of issues that could be expected.
“The design works take time and money that we want to have completed correctly. While the approval processes take time, this is important to ensure we can use the experience of government agencies to provide a robust treatment process.”
The town’s water is drawn from a combination of bores and the Wollondiily River. Heavy rainfall has previously discoloured the water and prompted the council to draw mostly from the river.
Mrs Hollands said consultants were refining the concept for the water treatment plant’s upgrade. Each plant was different and had to be specifically designed based on the raw water source. Marulan’s would require a “multi-process approach.”
The council is working through the concept with the Department of Planning, Industry and Environment and NSW Health. Design will commence upon approval.
“Concurrently, we are looking at short-term components for the upgrade that can be implemented quicker to further enhance the current process and contribute to the plant’s overall upgrade. This is also in progress,” Mrs Hollands said.
“We continue to actively manage the system to optimise the current plant’s performance.”
She rejected the need for refunds or rebates, saying water charges were based on access and usage. On the latter, people only paid for the amount they used.
“The council requires the income generated through water charges to pay for operation of the Marulan water treatment and distribution system to provide water for residents,” she said.
Chamber goes in to bat
Marulan Chamber of Commerce vice-president David Humphreys said the water quality issues stretched back many years to Mulwaree Shire Council days (pre 2004).
“The filtration system has been let go to the end of it’s life and now it’s causing problems,” he said.
“People have been waiting a hell of a long time for a solution to the town’s water and sewer. There will be at least another 50 to 60 homes built in the next 12 to 18 months, most of which will come with families that expect reasonable water quality.”
Mr Humphreys argued one solution was to connect the town with the Highland Source pipeline, which ran from Bowral to Goulburn. This would ultimately save money as the infrastructure required a certain level of flow for its maintenance, he said. Further, it would meet the needs of what the council said was the fastest growing part of the LGA.
Newly elected councillor, Steve Ruddell said he’d spoken to residents about the water and sewer issues before the election.
“I’d like to see it as a priority,” he said.
“In the 21st century we shouldn’t be seeing creamy, black water coming from the taps.”
Meantime, design is also underway on an upgraded sewer treatment plant. The council was working with government agencies to develop a treatment and disposal process for Marulan’s effluent for the next 30 years.
Dubbo Regional Council should be doing more to encourage water conservation, according to almost two-thirds of the respondants of a recent survey.
In July and August, council surveyed more than 700 people in the local government area to ask about their satisfaction with their water and sewerage service.
The level of satisfaction with response times to water supply problems grew from 56 per cent who were satisfied in 2017 to 80 per cent in 2020.
The satisfaction with the workmanship also increased from 78 per cent to 88 per cent.
But 63 per cent of respondants said council should do more to encourage water conservation.
Concerns were also raised about water quality in Mumbil, especially around the hardness of the water, that is the level of minerals in the water.
Geurie residents also reported problems with their water supply, mainly the quality and colour of water.
Council attributed the complaints to the dirty water and turbidity issues experienced in the town as a result of the drought and poor river quality following a period of heavy rainfall.
The water filtration plan has since been since been upgraded.
Dubbo deputy mayor Stephen Lawrence said the survey gave a “pretty interesting” insight into the community.
“It was interesting to me particularly that of those who answered, 63 per cent believe council should do more in respect of water conservation,” Cr Lawrence said.
“I thought that was an interesting response to get in July and August 2020 when we imposed water restrictions last year at a very high level and that was something that cause a lot of consternation and opinion in the community…”
But the deputy mayor said the response of the survey was comforting because it showed council had its finger on the pulse of the community
January 2021: Kangaroo Valley Water Filtration Plant (NSW) – Algae
Kangaroo Valley WFP. Algal ASU above minor incident level in Kangaroo Valley raw water. Potential to cause inconvenience to water filtration plant, reducing filter run times. Naturally occurring organism in waterways. Shoalhaven City Council notified and confirmed no
issues for treatment.
November 2020 – Fitzroy Falls Picnic Area (NSW) – Turbidity
November 2020: Elevated turbidity (~ 10.7 NTU) in Fitzroy Falls picnic area tap. Elevated turbidity may indicate inadequate disinfection. Likely disturbance of reservoir following water tanker delivery. Reticulation system flushed and all turbidity values
below 2 NTU through picnic area.
Sampling on 21 September recorded 1,293 ASU/mL at the dam wall site. Potential to cause inconvenience to water filtration plant, reducing filter run times. Naturally occurring organism in waterways. Notified Nepean Water Filtration Plant and recommended outlet change to a lower level to avoid algae. Information was provided regarding water quality change at proposed lower outlet level.
January 2021 – Lake Nepean – Algae
Elevated algal ASU in surface water at Lake Nepean. Potential to cause inconvenience
to water filtration plant, reducing filter run times. Naturally occurring organism in
waterways. Plant notified and additional sampling arranged. Supply depth not impacted (15-20m from surface). ASU reduced in subsequent samples.
March 2021 – Nepean – E.coli, Cryptosporidium, Turbidity, Colour Manganese
Exceedance of multiple parameters in Nepean raw water – turbidity, true colour, total manganese, total aluminium, alkalinity, MIB, Geosmin, E. coli (870 org/100mL) and
Cryptosporidium (12 oocysts/10L) . Elevated water quality parameters will impact water supply for treatment. Unavoidable turbid intrusion due to extensive heavy rain. Managed as part of ongoing flood incident with daily water quality updates provided to Sydney Water and
NSW Health.
Elevated turbidity (19.8 NTU) at Cordeaux picnic tap. Elevated turbidity may indicate inadequate disinfection. Recent lake intrusion maybe causing spike in turbidity. NSW Health notified. Upper Nepean maintenance team was requested to flush the reticulation system, check for faults and test turbidity at end tap. Following flushing turbidity returned within range – 2.09 NTU
Water NSW Annual Water Quality Monitoring Report 2020-21 Appendices
Giardia (53 cysts/10L) detected in raw water supply to Wingecarribee Water Filtration Plan. Giardia can cause severe gastrointestinal illness but is easily disinfected with chlorine during
treatment. Naturally occurring organism in waterways. Repeat sampling was arranged. Reported to Water Filtration Plant and NSW Health according to protocols, no further action required at this level for raw water.
October 2020: Algae. Wingecarribee WFP
Potential toxin producing cyanobacteria in Wingecarribee raw water > 0.2 mm3/L. Potential toxin producing species. No toxins detected. Naturally occurring organism in
waterways. Notified Wingecarribee Shire Council and NSW Health. No toxins detected. Updates provided on subsequent sampling results.
Lake Monduran Service Area (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
2018/19 Lake Monduran (Qld) Trihalomethanes – 350 µg/L (max)
2019/20 Lake Monduran (Qld) Trihalomethanes – 360 µg/L (max)
2020/21 Lake Monduran (Qld) Trihalomethanes – 320 µg/L (max)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
2020/21: Moore Park (Queensland) Total Dissolved Solids 921.4mg/L (max), 462.5mg/L (mean)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
30 samples at the Glenlyon WTP exceeded the acceptable limit in the period 12/02/2021
to the end of the reporting period of 30/06/2021 (with 28 samples at the Haigh Cottage and
33 samples at the Caravan Park (Office) exceeding the limit in this period). The maximum
turbidity recorded in this period was 14.9 NTU, 14.9 NTU, and 15 NTU at the WTP, Haigh
Cottage and Caravan Park respectively. This event was not initially notified to the regulator
as it was determined that there was no risk to public health and the event was under
operational control. Additional testing of manganese and iron levels on the 01/03/2021indicated manganese levels above ADWG aesthetic limits due to oxidation in the treated water tank. Increase in Manganese suspected to have been caused by low dam levels.
This event was notified to the Regulator on the 13/03/201 due to manganese levels above
the aesthetic limit resulting in a discolouration of the water and attributing to increased
turbidity levels. The elevated manganese levels eventually subsided however increasing
turbidity levels persisted due to higher raw water turbidity levels due to subsequent inflows
into Glenlyon Dam. Overall, elevated turbidity levels occurred throughout February – June
2021 and into the 2021/2022 reporting period.
Update: Glenlyon Dam residents and visitors advised to bring potable water
Update 2: 13 January 2022, 2:10pm
This alert applies to all residents and visitors at Glenlyon Dam who receive treated water from the Glenlyon Dam Water Supply.
Glenlyon Dam continues to have higher than normal levels of turbidity in the water supply.
Sunwater has been undertaking a series of actions to investigate the cause of the issue.
Investigations are completed and work will now be undertaken to restore the treatment capability and improve the performance of the Glenlyon Dam Water Treatment Plant.
This work involves replacing the existing UV unit and installing a trial coagulant dosing system to reduce the turbidity levels and improve the treated water quality. Sunwater expects this to be completed early in 2022.
Upon review, a permanent coagulant dosing system will be designed and installed to manage the turbidity levels.
Please be advised, the water quality notice for Glenlyon Dam will stay in effect until Sunwater is confident the issue has been suitably resolved.
Sunwater advises all residents and visitors to not use the tap water for drinking, cooking or brushing teeth. Residents and visitors are urged to bring their own potable water to the recreation area. Limited bottled water is also available for purchase from the Glenlyon Dam Tourist Park office.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Logan East Water Supply Zone (Queensland) – Bromodichloromethane
2019/20: Logan East Water Supply Zone Bromodichloromethane (Trihalomethane) 59ug/L. (2019/20 av. 31ug/L)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Since bromodichloromethane was listed in the Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens, additional studies in rats have been identified. Administration of bromodichloromethane in the drinking water increased the combined incidence of benign and malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma) in males (George et al. 2002) and caused benign liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma) in females (Tumasonis et al. 1987).
Cancer Studies in Humans
The data available from epidemiological studies are inadequate to evaluate the relationship between human cancer and exposure specifically to bromodichloromethane. Several epidemiological studies indicated a possible association between ingestion of chlorinated drinking water (which typically contains bromodichloromethane) and increased risk of
cancer in humans, but these studies could not provide information on whether any observed effects were due to bromodichloromethane or to one or more of the hundreds of other disinfection by-products also present in chlorinated water (ATSDR 1989).” (1)
Kimberley Park Water Supply Zone (Queensland) Turbidity
2019/20: Kimberley Park (Queensland) Turbidity 5.5NTU (max). 2019/20 av: 0.4NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Following a customer enquiry, Loganwater took samples from a property in Regents Park. Normal hydrocarbon results for Benzene, Ethylbenzene, Toluene, Xylene were within ADWG (Health) limits. However Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon and Total Recoverable Hydrocarbon results of 40µg/L were detected (for both). There are no ADWG Health limits for these.
In consultation with QLD Health, the Regulator, Industry WQ experts and other relevant guidelines, including WHO guidelines for Petroleum Products in Drinking Water (2008), it was decided that an appropriate limit was 90µg/L. This meant the results were within acceptable limits and there was no health issue. The issue was reported regardless and led to an improvement in process and customer complaint handling.
2/2/20: Woodhill water dosing facility dosed above 5mg/L for a period of 6 minutes (6:42am – 6:48am). Root-cause analysis showed that this was due to a downstream reservoir ceasing calling for water and the chlorine dosing station continued to dose for 6 minutes into the main – resulting in a very short-term chlorine exceedance. When the high levels were detected by the
analysers the dosing unit disabled. This triggered a page to the on-call officer.
No customer complaints were experienced, and it is likely that no customers were affected due to dilution, flows and the time of day.
SCADA reprogramming and testing of the new code and operation proved successful in addressing the underlying issue and there have been no more similar events since.
This issue occurred in October 2019, however a fault in the programming had meant that the issue was experienced again. Note that this has not occurred again, and all testing and monitoring demonstrates the system now works as designed.
18/10/19: Woodhill water dosing facility dosed above 5mg/L for a period of 15 minutes (3:30am – 3:45am). Root-cause analysis showed that this was due to a downstream reservoir ceasing calling for water and the chlorine dosing station continued to dose for 6 minutes into the main. The system worked as designed, and when the high levels were detected by the analysers, the dosing unit disabled, and this triggered a page to the on-call officer. No customer complaints were experienced, and it is likely that no customers were affected due to dilution, flows
and the time of day. SCADA reprogramming was performed to try and prevent a recurrence.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2000-2016: Darlington Point (NSW): E.coli, Iron, Colour
Treated water turbidity exceeded the ADWG target for chlorine disinfection of <1 NTU in 46% of samples; although Darlington Point supply is not currently disinfected, the turbidity should be noted for future dosing installations. Total coliforms were also detected on a number of occasions. Occasional exceedances were recorded for E. coli, and rare exceedances for true colour iron. (Murrumbidgee Council Drinking Water Management Strategy 2016)
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Iron
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste), the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Colour
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Treated water turbidity exceeded the ADWG target for chlorine disinfection of <1 NTU in 33% of samples. Total coliforms were also detected on a number of occasions. Free and total chlorine results were consistently above the ADWG aesthetic limit of 0.6 mg/L, but it was noted that adequate disinfection is considered higher priority than aesthetic acceptability. Occasional exceedances were also recorded for E. coli and iron.(Murrumbidgee Council Drinking Water Management Strategy 2016)
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Iron
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste), the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Boil water alert issued after Riverina town’s supply deemed unsafe
Dec 19 2023:
Drinking water in the Jerilderie township has been deemed unsafe following problems with the town’s water treatment.
An alert issued by Murrumbidgee Council states staff are currently working to fix the problem.
“Water used for drinking or food preparation should be brought to a rolling boil to make it safe,” a spokesperson for Murrumbidgee Council said.
“Kettles with automatic shut off switches can do this.
2000-2016: Jerilderie (NSW): E.coli
Long term historical water quality data relevant for each scheme are analysed prior to the risk assessment workshop, the results of which are captured in the respective Risk Workshop Report. A summary of the issues identified for Jerilderie is provided below:
Turbidity is sometimes higher than the ADWG target for chlorine disinfection of <1 NTU (based on daily data collected at the treatment plant). E. coli detection is rare. (Murrumbidgee Council Drinking Water Management Strategy 2016)
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
The environment upstream of the salmon hatchery on Tasmania’s Florentine River is pristine — it’s a sought-after destination for fly fishers.
Downstream, it is a different story.
Tasmania’s salmon industry has long relied on the state’s freshwater rivers to operate its hatcheries, but the worsening presence of sludge, bacterial matting, and nutrients in the Florentine River has some sounding the alarm.
One of those people is local fly fisher Gerard Castles, who has previously been vocal about concerns with the salmon industry’s operations in coastal waters.
Mr Castles contacted the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) after visiting the Florentine River earlier this month.
He has since sworn off fishing near the Salmon Enterprises of Tasmania (SALTAS) hatchery.
When Steve Kendrick first arrived in Wood Wood, on the banks of the Murray River in north-west Victoria, he fell in love with the location and made his dream to run a caravan park a reality.
But the Wood Wood General Store and the caravan park operator faces an uncertain future.
“It’s something we were aware of to a point, that everybody in Wood Wood — even the businesses — have to rely on pumping from the river for domestic use,” he said.
“[Otherwise] they have to buy tank water in for drinking water as it doesn’t really rain in the Mallee very much.”
Five years ago, the Department of Health in Bendigo contacted Mr Kendrick about a blue-green algae event in the town with a population of 85.
When Steve Kendrick first arrived in Wood Wood, on the banks of the Murray River in north-west Victoria, he fell in love with the location and made his dream to run a caravan park a reality.
But the Wood Wood General Store and the caravan park operator faces an uncertain future.
“It’s something we were aware of to a point, that everybody in Wood Wood — even the businesses — have to rely on pumping from the river for domestic use,” he said.
“[Otherwise] they have to buy tank water in for drinking water as it doesn’t really rain in the Mallee very much.”
Five years ago, the Department of Health in Bendigo contacted Mr Kendrick about a blue-green algae event in the town with a population of 85.
South Gippsland Water in consultation with the Department of Health advise that residents of Inverloch should boil their drinking water until further notice.
This advice has been issued following reported contaminated water in Inverloch Clear Water Storage on 4 March 2022.
We have found two deceased birds and sediment in the Inverloch supply. In the interests of public safety, we’re taking a very cautious approach. The presence of the birds may indicate some sort of contamination, which we are now testing. We’re also immediately cleaning the system to bring it back online as soon as possible.
Tim O’Halloran always thought rainwater from his tank was clean, that was until he put his water supply to the test during a monitoring project.
“You put your rainwater into a little cup, leave it there for an hour or two, then you watch the water turn a horrible, horrible colour and you know it’s full of some sort of germs,” he said.
The project, conducted at Balranald in the western Riverina, saw 17 water screening tests carried out on rainwater tanks.
Sixty per cent of those returned a positive recording for types of bacteria that could indicate the presence of viral organisms that can make people sick.
Project team member, Charles Sturt University’s Peter Waterman, said bacteria readings could be the first sign of other viral organisms being present.
He said filters and chlorine could be used to treat bacteria in water, but there was also an affordable option.
Risks to health
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines suggest the main sources of contamination to rainwater systems are birds, small animals, and debris collected on roofs.
Water sanitation and hygiene consultant Daniel Deere said E. coli and salmonella are most commonly found in tank water, but there are more serious organisms.
“In tropical parts of Australia you can get things like legionella which causes legionnaires disease,” Dr Deere said.
Dr Deere said most people can clear microorganisms naturally with no more than mild diarrhoea.
He said vulnerable people were at highest risk of getting ill, while for everyone else it can depend on immunity.
“If you’re from an urban centre, or you drink town water, and you go on holiday to a country house somewhere that’s got rainwater, it is possible you won’t be as immune to what’s in that water,” Dr Deere said.
Impacts of climate change
A key part of the monitoring project was to determine the impacts of climate change on domestic water supplies in remote and rural areas.
Professor Waterman said some organisms, like Naegleria fowleri, thrive in warmer water.
“It is as happy as Larry to live in water from 23 to over 40 degrees Celsius,” he said.
The current flooding has led to the Richmond Valley Council (RVC) being unable to ensure that drinking water is safe to drink from the tap and are asking residents to boil their water before drinking and food preparation.
‘Water sourced from the Richmond River has experienced high turbidity levels following recent rain events,’ said a spokesperson for RVC.
‘This poor source water has resulted in the inability to reliably purify the water and so, as a precautionary measure, Council requests that all residents who source their water from the Casino Treatment Plant boil the water for the uses noted below.
25/2/22: Casino (NSW) Turbidity
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
NSW residents urged to boil tap water as expert warns catastrophic floods could lead to raw sewage contamination
March 2 2022: https://www.skynews.com.au/australia-news/nsw-residents-urged-to-boil-tap-water-as-expert-warns-catastrophic-floods-could-lead-to-raw-sewage-contamination/news-story/c8b18d1b00400784edcc81a9645e0a56
New South Wales residents have been urged to boil their tap water as wild weather and heavy rain inundate the state, contaminating flood water with raw sewage.
NSW Health is urging residents in parts of the state to avoid drinking unboiled tap water as wild weather and flash flooding continues across Australia’s east coast.
Record levels of rain have inundated parts of Queensland and NSW as heavy downpours engulf the east coast – flooding homes, breaking sewage systems and leaving cars submerged.
A boil water alert has been issued for residents in Richmond Valley Council (Casino and surrounds) and Tweed Shire council (Uki and South Murwillumbah/Dunbible).
Director of the Australian Graduate School of Engineering at UNSW Professor Stuart Khan says floodwaters inundating these areas are “almost always” highly contaminated.
“Floodwaters contain lots of organic carbon and sediment, which is picked up from erosion of riverbanks and other overland flow,” he told SkyNews.com.au.
“In urban areas, floods fill sewers and cause them to overflow, so flood waters also quickly become contaminated with raw sewage.
“When this occurs, bacteria and viruses from sewage create public health risks for anyone who comes into contact with untreated flood waters.”
Prof Khan says anyone who comes into contact with untreated flood waters is at risk of contracting illnesses including gastro, skin infections and ear infections.
The northern NSW town of Mullumbimby is experiencing a water shortage after its water treatment plant was knocked out by catastrophic floods.
The Byron Shire Council says they are working to tank fresh water supplies into the town but encourages residents to “heed to water restrictions”.
Prof Khan says the demand for clean water can be “very high” as parts of the state clean up following the deluge.
“When reduced water supply occurs at the same time as increased water demand, this exacerbates the risk of shortages,” he said.
“Any drinking water supply that significantly loses pressure during a flood is at risk of contamination by floodwaters.
“If there is concern that this may have occurred, people should avoid drinking tap water unless they are able to boil it first.”
NSW Health says water used for drinking or food preparation should be brought to a rolling boil and allowed to cool completely before refrigerating in a clean container with a lid.
Bottled water or cool boiled water should be used for drinking, washing uncooked food (salad, fruit), making ice, cleaning teeth, gargling and for pet’s drinking water.
Dishes should be washed in hot soapy water or in a dishwasher and children should take bottled water or cool boiled water to school.
Innamincka is a tiny town in far north-east South Australia, a 23-hour drive from Adelaide.
It is so isolated that in 1860, explorers Robert Burke and William Wills were the first to visit the place that would become known as Innamincka and the nearby Cooper Creek, while trying a journey from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
It is also the site of the famous Dig Tree, where William Brahe left supplies for Burke and Wills after waiting four months for their return from the Gulf.
The two explorers returned to Cooper Creek only hours after Brahe had decided to leave and after leaving the tree, both men lost their camels and were unable to carry enough water to cross the Strzelecki Desert, thereby isolating them to Cooper Creek.
Eventually in 1861, the two explorers died, dehydrated and exhausted, in the middle of the desert.
History repeating itself
More than 150 years after the Burke and Wills expedition failed, Innamincka is again facing serious concerns about supplies — specifically, water.
The town has been collecting water from Policeman’s Waterhole, two kilometres away, and transporting it via a water truck paid for by residents.
Now, the waterhole is running dry and there is a chance of blue-green algae developing.
Ali Matthews, one of only 13 people who call Innamincka home, said the town was in dire need of a more stable water supply.
“We don’t want to run that waterhole so low that there is a possibility of [algae developing],” she said.
“Once that happens, and it gets into our pumps and water tanks, it’s basically contaminated.
“I’ve got a young family and I don’t want those issues that could potentially be health issues in the future.”
Bore water the only solution
Ms Matthews said a new bore water source would be the best option for the town.
“There is a bore under review, for some time, and it would be a lot better to have that as a backup because we shouldn’t be always relying on the creek water,” she said.
Ms Matthews said the Outback Communities Authority (OCA) had been silent on helping them so far.
Members of the Innamincka Progress Association are finalising letters they will be sending to the OCA.
“Hopefully all this will bring us together and, hopefully, get a great outcome,” Ms Matthews said.
OCA already listening
Chair of the OCA Cecilia Woolford said there were already a number of projects in the pipeline to deliver water to Innamincka, including a new source called Lisbeth Bore.
“This could be used normally as the last resort backup, however it is owned by the Innamincka Progress Association and it is able to be used,” she said.
Ms Woolford said the “unmetered usage” of water by some residences and businesses in the town had led to the situation the town now found itself in.
The OCA will hold a community consultation session at Innamincka in February to try and find a more permanent solution to the town’s water supply.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
2016/17 – Kandanga (Queensland) – Lead
2016/17: Kandanga (Queensland) – Lead 0.011mg/L (max).
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Torres Strait Islanders believe they are being denied a basic first-world human right to clean drinking water after cryptosporidium was detected in the water supplies of three islands.
The microscopic parasite was found at levels of 2.0 (oo)cysts/10L in a sample tested by Cairns Regional Council’s Water Laboratory.
There is no set guideline value for the parasite in the Australian Drinking Water Standards, but cryptosporidiosis is an immediately reportable infectious disease.
The water test was organised privately by a Thursday Island resident in May, concerned with the lack of response by governments at all levels.
The outcome led to a boil water alert being issued, with a joint Torres Shire Council and Queensland Health statement in June citing “turbidity and a bacterial risk” in the water supplies of Thursday, Horn and Hammond Islands.
Water quality has significantly deteriorated over the past two years, according to residents.
“There’s a dirty colour to the water … people are getting sick, stomach bugs and stuff,” said Thursday Island resident Rita Kebisu.
“We seem to be going backwards into third world standards when we still need to boil our water.”
Queensland Health said Thursday Island’s hospital has seen no unusual levels of water-related illnesses.
“We all put it down to the normal virus going round, a 24-hour virus, you’ve got a bit of diarrhoea, vomiting,” said another island resident, Chi Chi Fujii.
Eight cases of cryptosporidiosis have been reported in the Torres and Cape region in 2018, up from two last year, while there were 23 cases in 2016.
Sinking costs into fixing dirty water
Bad water is also bad for business, especially when you run a cafe like Raphael Gushtaspi.
“Water filters, they’re $80 each, plus the paper filters are $26, and you’re changing them monthly,” Mr Gushtaspi said.
Normally you could get a year out of a high micron canister filter and within four months I’ve got to change it. That’s how much it clogs up now.”
He said the water crisis is also creating unacceptable workplace health and safety issues for his staff and clientele.
“Customers want water, we want water to wash up, to clean, and we don’t want to run the risk of making anyone sick,” the cafe owner said.
No quick-fix to island water upgrade
The Queensland Government has pledged $12 million in this year’s budget for a series of projects to deliver improved water quality on the islands over the next two years.
Opponents are sceptical whether that will be enough to fix issues with undersea pipelines connecting the Horn Island reservoir to Thursday and Hammond Islands.
“All of the system is going to need to be somehow flushed, this is not a small job,” said the Federal Member for Leichhardt, Warren Enstch.
Residents said they also want relief for the cost of accessing clean water during the upgrade.
“How do we manage over two years? Do we get some sort of rebate from the Council because we are buying water every day?” Ms Fujji said.
Local Government Minister Stirling Hinchcliffe said a rebate was unlikely.
“There’s no requirement to use bottled water. There are other solutions which people are advised about, on a regular basis, about boiling water,” Mr Hinchcliffe said.
“That’s not an unusual thing when these unfortunate circumstances occur.”
The ABC contacted Torres Shire Regional Council but no-one was available for comment.
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Torres Dam (Queensland) – Arsenic
2011/12: Arsenic 0.014mg/L (highest level)
Arsenic: Australian Drinking Water Guideline = 0.01mg/L
Arsenic is bioaccumulative and symptoms may take 10-15 years to develop after expsoure at high levels. Drinking water can be contaminated with inorganic arsenic through wind blown dust, leaching or runoff from soil, rocks and sediment. Groundwater sources such as bores will usually have higher arsenic levels than surface water. In major Australian reticulated water supplies concentrations of arsenic range up to 0.015mg/L, with typical values less than
0.005mg/L. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/ehu/2676.pdf
Torres Dam – Queensland – Temperature
2011/12: Torres Dam (Queensland) – Temperature 22C
2011/12: Horn Island Dam (Queensland) – Temperature 22C
GUIDELINE
“No guideline is set due to the impracticality of controlling water temperature.
Drinking water temperatures above 20°C may result in an increase in the number of
complaints.
Temperature is primarily an aesthetic criterion for drinking water. Generally, cool water is more palatable than warm or cold water. In general, consumers will react to a change in water temperature. Complaints are most frequent when the temperature suddenly increases.
The turbidity and colour of filtered water may be indirectly affected by temperature, as low water temperatures tend to decrease the efficiency of water treatment processes by, for instance, affecting floc formation rates and sedimentation efficiency.
Chemical reaction rates increase with temperature, and this can lead to greater corrosion of pipes and fittings in closed systems. Scale formation in hard waters will also be greater at higher temperatures…
Water temperatures in major Australian reticulated supplies range from 10°C to 30°C. In some long, above-ground pipelines, water temperatures up to 45°C may be experienced…
The effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant is influenced by the temperature of the water being dosed. Generally higher temperatures result in more effective disinfection at a particular chlorine dose, but this may be counterbalanced by a more rapid loss of chlorine to the atmosphere (AWWA 1990).
A TOXIC chemical has been found in groundwater and soil at Beverley in Adelaide’s north-western suburbs.
THE Environment Protection Authority (EPA) says tests have confirmed the presence of trichloroethene or TCE in a number of locations.
TCE is a solvent that can cause nausea, headaches and dizziness with high exposure affecting the respiratory and central nervous systems.
It was previously found in another area in Adelaide where residents were forced to leave their homes.
The EPA said the latest tests found levels of TCE in both groundwater and soil vapour with soil vapour levels higher than expected.
Further tests and analysis will now be conducted to determine the health risks to local residents who have already been warned not to use groundwater for any purpose.
“Residents in the Beverley area will see activity from contractors in the next few weeks who will be drilling a series of small, shallow bore holes to determine what further work or remedial action will be required,” EPA spokesman Peter Dolan said on Friday.
Car maker Holden has warned property owners around its Elizabeth assembly plant in Adelaide against using possibly contaminated groundwater.
In a letter presented to property owners the company said it had identified historical contamination under its site with the detection of industrial solvents previously used for cleaning metal parts and plastics.
Holden said it had found trichloroethylene (TCE) and perchloroethene (PCE) at identifiable levels in groundwater about 18to 20 metres under the plant.
Low levels of both chemicals had also been found at the northeastern boundary of the company’s property and of TCE at the northern boundary.
“The risk posed by these chemicals is low given the concentrations that have been detected,” Holden told property owners.
“Nevertheless, we have notified (the) Environment Protection Authority (EPA) and are working with the EPA on this historical issue and are undertaking further testing and sampling of the contamination.”
Holden said it was in the process of determining where to sink test bores and warned against the use of bore water for any purpose until further notice.
“Please be assured that your health and safety are our top priority,” the company told property owners.
The EPA said it was previously notified of the contamination under the Holden site in February but had since been provided with further information by the company.
Acting chief executive Tony Circelli there were no bores on residential properties within the investigation area but there were some commercial bores.
Note: not likely to have been detected in drinking water
Toxic sites in Adelaide’s suburbs number in their thousands
THE Opposition has demanded a statewide audit of contaminated sites, as it emerges the dangers of trichloroethene entering groundwater was suspected as far back as the 1940s.
THE Opposition has demanded a statewide audit of contaminated sites, as it emerges the dangers of trichloroethene entering groundwater was suspected as far back as the 1940s.
The call for an audit comes after Environmental Protection Authority chief executive Tony Circelli confirmed that “thousands” of sites were contaminated with various chemicals and the EPA received about 100 new notifications each year.
The State Government and Environment Minister Ian Hunter are under increasing pressure over the contamination scandal in Clovelly Park, where dozens of people have been forced to leave their homes because of health risks from the vapours of trichloroethene (TCE) rising up through the soil from industrially poisoned groundwater.
Mr Circelli, was responding to a claim by UniSA Professor Ravi Naidu, the managing director of the Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation, that there are about 4000 contaminated sites in SA.
Mr Circelli said that claim was incorrect, but conceded the number “is in the thousands”.
Opposition Leader Steven Marshall said an audit was needed to clarify the exact number of contaminated sites and their locations.
“The purpose of conducting a statewide audit would be to establish a hierarchy of sites based on potential public health risks,” he said.
“As well as playing an important community awareness role, the audit could also provide a benchmark for ongoing monitoring and evaluation of contaminated sites for the EPA and assist with any future contamination investigations.
“This audit would inform South Australian families and businesses about any potential contamination risks that they should be aware of, as well as future development and investment decisions.”
The Opposition also will request State Parliament’s Statutory Authorities Review Committee inquire into how the EPA has discharged its duties.
The EPA lists its major areas of concern as Keswick, Marleston, Clovelly Park-Mitchell Park, the Holden plant at Elizabeth, Hendon, Glenelg East, three areas of Edwardstown including one reaching into South Plympton, and Solomontown at Port Pirie.
It also established a groundwater prohibition area in the Allenby Gardens/Flinders Park area in June last year, due to excavations of clay subsequently being filled with industrial waste which contaminated the groundwater.
Since 1999 the EPA has successfully prosecuted 63 companies, individuals, councils and utilities for pollution offences resulting in fines of between $60 and $415,000, either as court cases resulting in convictions or negotiated civil penalties.
One case was dismissed, two were withdrawn by consent and in three cases not guilty verdicts were returned including one which resulted in the EPA being hit with $47,000 in costs.
Meanwhile EPA boss Mr Circelli revealed the EPA has found a material data safety sheet from the 1940s advising anyone using TCE not to dispose of rags contaminated with the chemical anywhere near a water course.
Note: Unlikely to have been detected in drinking water in these houses
Trichloroethene contamination found within five homes in Thebarton
GROUNDWATER contamination has leached into five households in Thebarton with the EPA now offering ventilation and extraction systems to affected residents.
CONTAMINATED groundwater has leached into several houses in an Adelaide inner suburb, posing a long term health risk to residents.
The Environmental Protection Agency has warned residents in the contamination zone not to use their bore water for any purpose.
The EPA identified 17 impacted properties after high concentrations of trichloroethene, or TCE, was located in the groundwater around Thebarton.
Of the 17 households, the EPA received permission to test eight properties.
Tests for three of the properties did not return positive results for TCE.
However five of the properties had TCE present during indoor vapour testing.
All five properties had between 20 and 200 microgrammes of TCE present during air testing, which the EPA considers a possible health risk and earmarks the property for intervention.
A baseline average for TCE in houses is around two micrograms.
Testing showed most of the properties had between 20 and 30 micrograms present, however one property recorded a result of 70 micrograms, more than 35 times the average reading.
EPA regulation director Peter Dolan said affected households would be offered custom made ventilation and extraction systems which would remove nearly all TCE vapour.
The system uses pipes beneath affected properties which uses a low wattage fan to extract vapour and release it above the roof line of the house.
The system takes a week to install and is optional for residents.
TCE is a commonly used degreasing agent and is typically found in soil and groundwater of former industrial sites especially where metal working was conducted.
While exposure to low level TCE does no result in an immediate reaction, decades of exposure has been linked to cancer of the liver and kidneys and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Thousands of residents in Adelaide’s south-west could be banned indefinitely from using groundwater due to contamination from a dangerous industrial chemical.
Trichloroethylene (TCE) is found in industrial solvents and exposure to the chemical can cause some types of cancer.
The Environment Protection Authority (EPA) said TCE had been detected in groundwater accessible from properties in Edwardstown, South Plympton, Plympton Park, Park Holme, Ascot Park and Melrose Park.
EPA director of regulation Peter Dolan said the contamination was “well known” but the authority was now looking into whether a blanket ban was needed.
“There’s about seven source sites [and] a number of contamination plumes in the groundwater and they’ve been assessed over quite a long period of time,” he said.
“We’ve decided we need to group them all together and consider banning groundwater taken in the whole area.
“What we’re considering is banning the use of groundwater taken from bores which are shallower than 30 metres deep [and] that’s because that’s where the contamination happens to be.
“The affected area is bordered by Daws Road to the south, South Road to the east, just past Marion Road to the west and Maxwell Avenue to the north.”
Mr Dolan said residents had been warned for several years that the bore water was not safe for use.
“[TCE] is known to cause … rarer forms of liver and kidney cancers and also non-Hodgkin lymphoma,” he said.
“We know that most people in the area don’t use groundwater — it would be as low as maybe 3 per cent of households that have access to a bore.
“The challenge is, we don’t know where they all are.”
Information sessions will be held for affected residents next month, with a final decision on a ban expected to be made by the end of the year.
25/11/20: Tintintara (South Australia) Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.5mg/L
24/3/21: Tintintara (South Australia) Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.5mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
14/1/21: (South Australia) 14/1/21 Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.5mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
Moculta (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2022/23: Moculta (South Australia) Average: 8.62 pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
When pH is below 6.5 or above 11, the water may corrode plumbing fittings and pipes. This, however, will depend on other factors such as the material used, the concentration and type of ions in solution, the availability of oxygen, and the water temperature. Under some conditions, particularly in the presence of strong oxidising agents such as chlorine, water with a pH between 6.5 and 7 can be quite corrosive.
Chlorine disinfection efficiency is impaired above pH 8.0, although the optimum pH for monochloramine disinfectant formation is between 8.0 and 8.4. In chloraminated supplies chlorine can react with ammonia to form odorous nitrogen trichloride below pH 7.
Chlorination of water supplies can decrease the pH, while it can be significantly raised by lime leached from new concrete tanks or from pipes lined with asbestos cement or cement mortar. Values of pH above 9.5 can cause a bitter taste in drinking water, and can irritate skin if the water is used for ablutions.
14/1/21: Keyneton (South Australia) Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.56mg/L
2022/23: Keyneton (South Australia) Ammonia – Free – as N 0.52mg/L (max), 0.292mg/L (av.)
2022/23: Keyneton (South Australia) Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.63mg/L (max), 0.35mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
2022/23: Keyneton (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2022/23: Keyneton (South Australia) pH 8.54 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
News surrounding issue emerged after residents in Sydney took to social media
Many reported to Sydney Water that their water in household tasted like ‘dirt’
Sydney Water confirmed they received ‘numerous reports’ of the sudden change
The organisation says it is due to a change of weather near Warragamba Dam
They are working with water quality technicians, but it could last many weeks
Outrage has been sparked across Sydney after many residents noticed their water smells like ‘fresh lawn clippings and dirt’.
Residents across the city took to social media from Wednesday to report their concerns that their water had been impacted.
One individual wrote: ‘Loving the new dirty, earthy mouldy water Sydney Water is giving to Parramatta the last few days. I love nothing more than showering in water that stinks like mould.’
‘As of yesterday, my neighbour and I noticed that our @SydneyWaterNews tap water suddenly tastes bad. It tastes a little like dirt. Is anyone else in #Marrickville having this problem?’ wrote another.
While a third asked: ‘Is anyone else’s #sydneywater tasting a bit…earthier than usual this past day?’
Sydney Water confirmed to worried residents on social media that they had received ‘numerous reports’ of the unexpected change in the taste of their water supply.
‘This has been caused by a change of weather near Warragamba Dam that has impacted our supply from that area,’ they wrote.
‘Please be assured that all our water is treated to a very high standard before it enters the drinking water supply and our water quality technicians have found no health impacts to the water supply due to this event.’
Sydney Water added that the only difference residents would notice is the change to the water’s taste.
The organisation is currently notifying water quality technicians of all properties affected by the issue to help manage the situation.
However, the issue may continue for several weeks, depending on the blending of the water sources that supply the water filtration plant.
Daily Mail Australia has contacted Sydney Water for further comment.
News surrounding issue emerged after residents in Sydney took to social media
Many reported to Sydney Water that their water in household tasted like ‘dirt’
Sydney Water confirmed they received ‘numerous reports’ of the sudden change
The organisation says it is due to a change of weather near Warragamba Dam
They are working with water quality technicians, but it could last many weeks
Outrage has been sparked across Sydney after many residents noticed their water smells like ‘fresh lawn clippings and dirt’.
Residents across the city took to social media from Wednesday to report their concerns that their water had been impacted.
One individual wrote: ‘Loving the new dirty, earthy mouldy water Sydney Water is giving to Parramatta the last few days. I love nothing more than showering in water that stinks like mould.’
‘As of yesterday, my neighbour and I noticed that our @SydneyWaterNews tap water suddenly tastes bad. It tastes a little like dirt. Is anyone else in #Marrickville having this problem?’ wrote another.
While a third asked: ‘Is anyone else’s #sydneywater tasting a bit…earthier than usual this past day?’
Sydney Water confirmed to worried residents on social media that they had received ‘numerous reports’ of the unexpected change in the taste of their water supply.
‘This has been caused by a change of weather near Warragamba Dam that has impacted our supply from that area,’ they wrote.
‘Please be assured that all our water is treated to a very high standard before it enters the drinking water supply and our water quality technicians have found no health impacts to the water supply due to this event.’
Sydney Water added that the only difference residents would notice is the change to the water’s taste.
The organisation is currently notifying water quality technicians of all properties affected by the issue to help manage the situation.
However, the issue may continue for several weeks, depending on the blending of the water sources that supply the water filtration plant.
Daily Mail Australia has contacted Sydney Water for further comment.
Throughout Western Australia’s Kimberley region, potentially hundreds of Indigenous residents drink water each day without knowing whether it is harming their health.
Those residents live in or regularly visit the 44 remote communities classed as ‘very small’, which are included in the WA Government’s Remote Essential and Municipal Services Program, known as REMS.
Since then, a handful of those very small remote communities have been put on the Department of Communities’ regular water testing schedule.
But the vast majority, all of which are in the Kimberley, still do not receive testing for dangerous microbes such as the potentially lethal E. coli bacteria.
Residents in those communities say they, like almost all Australians, deserve to know their drinking water is safe, while experts point to technologies such as mobile testing kits as a potential solution.
Australia is a signatory to a United Nations goal to achieve “universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all” by 2030.
‘It would help us become a healthier person’
Indigenous advocate and renowned painter Ben Ward lives in the community of Cockatoo Springs, near Kununurra, which has a reputation for producing quality Aboriginal artwork.
The Miriwoong man, also known as ‘Gullmirr’, said he had long lobbied governments to test the drinking water in his community for dangerous microbes.
“I am concerned … it would help us become a healthier person,” he said.
“I’d like to see it [fixed] for future generations so I can teach people about arts.”
Mr Ward was also worried wastewater and sewage from the community could potentially find their way into the bore that the community’s supply of drinking water was drawn from.
“We’ve got the community up on the top part of the ridge and the water runs to the bottom,” Mr Ward said.
“In the station days, we would drink out of a billabong because we knew it was clean.”
Department spokesman Paul Isaachsen said in a statement to the ABC the bore was protected by sealing the bore head.
“A septic tank that is well-managed and periodically serviced should not impact negatively on the groundwater supply,” he said.
No testing exposes residents to health complaints
University of Queensland environmental health researcher Nina Lansbury Hall studies the impact water, housing and waste delivery have on the health of residents in Indigenous communities.
Dr Lansbury Hall said not testing drinking water for microbes exposed residents in those communities to “high” health risks.
“Microbial contamination is always something we need to worry about … a big part of that is faeces being the source of contamination,” Dr Lansbury Hall said.
“But if there are amoebas, which are parasites, maybe that’s going to cause long-term inflammation that will cause you diarrhoea and additional responses like a fever.”
Mobile testing kits a potential solution
Dr Lansbury Hall said the department could explore the use of mobile testing kits as a potential solution.
She said residents would need to receive basic training to use the kits effectively.
“Those mobile testing kits are terrific … they’re small, they’re like an esky and they have all sorts of equipment in them,” Dr Lansbury Hall said.
“So you might need to know how to use a new filter or not to leave it sitting in the sun for too long … none of those things are difficult.”
The idea was put to the department and Mr Isaachsen said in response the government required water to be tested in an accredited laboratory.
Very small community testing not in department’s guidelines
Mr Isaachsen said the state government’s Remote Service Level Guidelines did not require the department to undertake water quality testing in very small remote settlements.
But he noted that the Auditor General did recommend in its latest audit for the department to test for microbial water quality in all REMS communities.
Dirty water despair (near Bidyadanga – Western Australia)
September 7 2021
https://nit.com.au/dirty-water-despair/
There are 44 communities with WA’s Department of Communities that don’t have access to microbial water testing, with some community members drinking from water supplies that haven’t been tested in more than a decade.
According to environmental health workers, the true figure of those without access to microbial water testing could be much higher.
In WA, there are 138 remote Aboriginal communities in the Remote Essential and Municipal Services program.
Forty-four of those communities, housing at least 500 people, don’t have access to microbial water testing, leaving them vulnerable to bugs such as E. coli and Naegleria.
Department of Communities assistant director-general, Paul Isaachsen, said in a statement to NIT that there is currently no mechanism for those communities to request government microbial water testing if they have concerns about their water.
But Chicky Clements, environmental health worker for Nirrumbuk Aboriginal Corporation, said the true number of people drinking suspect water could be much higher than 500.
Since 2020, overcrowding and COVID-19 concerns have led some Aboriginal people in the Kimberley to move from larger communities back to very small outstations that were built before the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission was disbanded in 2005.
Outstations do not receive any water, sewerage, or power services from the Kimberley Remote Service Provider.
Drinking and bathing water in outstations is drawn from rivers or from bores sunk when the communities were established under ATSIC. Mr Clements said as far as he is aware, the bores and attached tanks have not been tested or cleaned since they were installed with ATSIC funding.
“There’s no testing until someone gets really sick; then they’ll have to try and trace back to where they were, what they did, or what they drank or ate,” Clements said.
“And if it does come back pinpointed to (the drinking water) that’s when they’ll do a test.”
Karajarri woman Fay Dean lives on Country at an outstation near Bidyadanga and drinks from a bore that was sunk when the station was established in the early 2000s.
She said in her 15 years on the station, her water supply hasn’t been tested once.
“I’m just risking it. There have been some bugs in there, and we’ve been told to flush the tank, but how would we get in there to push the sand out, if there’s sand and beetles and frogs in there?”
Ms Dean’s brother lives at Frazier Downs Station, where the tap water has been contaminated for at least 30 years. At Frazier Downs they bring in bottled water to avoid getting sick, but Ms Dean says she can’t afford that.
“I’d like to know, what am I drinking? Is this going to have after-effects as I get older?”
Mr Clements and other Aboriginal environmental health workers who did not want to be named said if they had access to field testing kits, they could get instant results on drinking water.
“If we had (water testing) kits, we could have done probably regular water testing on a lot of these little outstations, and that would at least indicate what’s in the water,” Mr Clements said. “But that sort of thing has the potential to cost big bucks.”
Aboriginal environmental health workers have told NIT there is no political will to fund the testing.
“(I think the Government’s attitude is it’s) probably better not to know what’s there and just wait until something happens (to those drinking the water),” Mr Clements said.
When Mr Clements asked a representative of the State Government whether Nirrumbuk could access field testing kits, he was told that testing water on outstations would create more issues than it was worth for the Government.
“Pretty much what I was told was, ‘well if you do that you can open up a can of worms. So the safest thing, the easiest thing is, if there’s an issue with the water, just boil it,’” Mr Clements said.
The State Government did not respond to questions about how many community members are living at outstations without water testing and how they could keep their water safe for consumption.
Water Minister Dave Kelly’s office said responsibility for water testing lies with the Department of Communities, and forwarded NIT’s request to Housing Minister John Carey.
Clean drinking water from the tap is a basic amenity not afforded to the small drought-affected community of Dulacca on Queensland’s Western Downs.
Instead, its water scheme supplies untreated water from a saline bore or turbid creek to the town’s 200 residents.
“We’re like the forgotten town,” resident Cherelle Manuel said.
On some days the water tastes muddy. On others it smells like “cat pee” and sulphur, she said.
‘Forgotten’ small towns
Ms Manuel relies on what little rainwater falls on the roof and she rations it so tightly she cannot even bathe in clean water.
More than half of Western Downs Regional Council towns do not have access to a potable water scheme.
Dulacca Hotel owner and Progress Association president Natalie Scotney said her community had asked the council for clean water since 2009.
“There is an enormous number of towns in the shire that don’t have potable water supply, and it’s not good enough,” she said.
The most recent petition to the council prompted an investigation into alternative water supplies for towns with non-potable schemes.
The report concluded potable water supply options for small communities such as Dulacca were too expensive.
It estimated a desalination plant at the local bore would cost an initial $1.5 million and carting water from the nearby town of Miles would cost nearly $350,000 a year.
Rainwater the viable option
Council last week voted to accept the report and its finding that rainwater tanks were the only viable option for these small townships.
“With such a small number of people connected to the water out there it would end up costing more for the region than what these people realise, and they would also be hit up for additional costs,” councillor and utilities spokesperson Peter Saxelby said.
Instead, the council has expanded an existing subsidy for rainwater tanks by offering a $2,000 rebate on tanks with more than 40,000 litres of capacity.
According to the council, the scheme added 3.2 million litres of additional water supply to the region in the last financial year.
A push is on to remove a dangerous source of lead in our drinking water, with building authorities recommending that billions of dollars worth of taps and other plumbing be replaced.
While our drinking water is generally safe, there is a fear that poisonous lead may be leaching from brass fittings.
The Australian Building Codes Board is about to release a new draft National Construction Code, with a key change to the allowable amount of lead from fittings – reducing it from the current 6 per cent to 0.25 per cent, the standard already used in countries such as the US and Canada.
Macquarie University environmental scientist, Professor Mark Taylor, has been recommending the shift for years.
“Nearly all water is safe,” he told 9News.
“But there are occasions when certain waters from certain taps in certain locations contain a lead concentration which is in excess of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.”
Research conducted by Macquarie University, and revealed by 9News in 2016, found more than half of tap water samples taken from households in NSW contained lead.
And, one in 12 exceeded the maximum amount permitted by the water guidelines.
Plumbing and tap water fittings were identified as the major source. While the research was conducted in NSW, the same fittings are used across Australia.
“I think it’s a really important change because it removes any uncertainty about the quality of our drinking water coming out of our most commonly used water source which is the tap in our kitchen,” Professor Taylor says.
“There is no safe level of lead exposure and we should mitigate all possible sources where we can. Lead can cause neuro-cognitive problems.
“It’s particularly harmful to young children. It can delay puberty. It can affect their intellectual development. It can cause other problems such as ADHD or irritability. And exposure doesn’t go away.”
The draft National Construction Code will suggest phasing out high lead taps, mixers, water dispensers and valves over three years and replacing them with low lead versions.
But the low lead versions are more expensive and the cost to households could be $2.1 billion over a decade.
However, the health impacts from lead exposure could be as high as $5 billion over the same period.
Homeowners won’t be forced to change immediately, though. But, as they come to replace taps and other plumbing, the low lead fittings will eventually be the only option.
“It’s a contaminant we can deal with,” Professor Taylor said.
“It’s a contaminant that causes definitive harm and lasting harm. And, it’s a contaminant that we know how to address. It’s a problem that can be solved.”
In the meantime, the advice is – flush water from your taps in the morning for 30 seconds before drinking. Professor Taylor adding that, if you’re going to make one change: “Just replace the tap in the kitchen. That’s the most important.”
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
2019/20: Pemberton E.coli 1 sample >0 cfu/100mL, Max cfu/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Do Not Drink Advisory Notice Issued – 16 June, 2021
Updated 2.30am Wednesday 16 June 2021
Yarra Valley Water, following consultation with the Department of Health, advises that customers do not drink tap water, until further notice, if you live, work or are in these affected suburbs:
Do Not Drink Advisory Notice Issued – 16 June 2021
Updated 2.30am Wednesday 16 June 2021
Yarra Valley Water, following consultation with the Department of Health, advises that customers do not drink tap water, until further notice, if you live, work or are in these affected suburbs:
Do Not Drink Advisory Notice Issued – 16 June, 2021
Updated 2.30am Wednesday 16 June, 2021
Yarra Valley Water, following consultation with the Department of Health, advises that customers do not drink tap water, until further notice, if you live, work or are in these affected suburbs:
Billimari residents have raised concerns following the discovery of elevated levels of naturally occurring uranium in the village’s bore water supply.
Detections of elevated levels were first identified in December and additional samples were sent for confirmation testing.
Results in January confirmed that the levels are above the guideline value recommend in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines for chemical toxicity, but it is below the level recommended for radiological toxicity. [level for drinking water is 0.017mg/L, radiological 0.5 Bq/L]
Cowra Council released a statement on Monday reminding residents the non-potable water was still unsafe for human consumption, however animals could still drink the water.
“Consumers are advised to not drink the water, or prepare food, freeze it for ice, clean their teeth or gargle with the water. The water can continue to be used for other household and external uses,” Director of Infrastructure and Operations, Dirk Wymer said.
“Boiling the water or filtering it will not make it safe to drink.
“The uranium level is below the toxicity guideline level recommended for stock water in the Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, and is therefore considered safe for animal consumption.” [level for stock water is 0.2mg/L]
This however has not sat well with residents like Becky Thornberry, who finds it hard to believe the water is safe for her dogs.
“I’ve got a little Dachshund, if it affects my body, how is it not going to affect her tiny body?” she said.
Ms Thornberry, who has lived in the area for two and a half years, said she was also unaware that boiling the water did not make it safe.
“I’ve been having cups of teas since I’ve been out here,” she said.
“Some days we’ve come home and the water is brown, it’s just brown, it stinks some days, you can’t even shower in it.
“It’s more than just you can’t drink it, it’s the colour, the smell, it’s everything.”
She puts it down to a lack of communication from council.
“They didn’t have signs up when we first moved out, then a few months later, they put them up, but we didn’t get any notice or anything in the mail,” she said.
“They did have a meeting last year about it with (Cowra Mayor, Councillor) Bill West but nothing come out of it.
“They put a notice in my door and that’s it, they don’t care. As long as they inform people that’s all they’ve really got to do.”
According to Cr West, “Council is working to replace the current bore with an alternative bore as soon as possible but want to first make sure it meets all regulatory approvals”.
While many residents use tank water, Ms Thornberry said they are frustrated at the water rates, especially when she must buy bottled water each week in Cowra.
“We don’t get any compensation, we still have to pay the full rate that people pay in town and they can drink it,” she said.
“I know it’s not a great big deal considering we are in a drought, but there’s been nothing offered to us.”
She suggested council place a water station or utilise a tanker to transport fresh water to Billimari on a regular basis.
“Canowindra’s got the water stations, I can’t see why they can’t put a tank up in Billimari or just have a tanker of fresh water, anyone who wants to fill up tanks, you could fill up a shuttle and that would last a couple of weeks,” Ms Thornberry said.
According to council, “the quality of the supply will continue to be closely monitored by Council and other authorities with advice and updates to be provided to Billimari residents when received”.
For further information regarding the non-potable water supply, please contact Council’s Director of Infrastructure and Operations, Dirk Wymer on (02) 6340 2070.
Brown tap water across Western NSW deserves state of emergency response
The NSW Government must supply and distribute free bottled water across the growing number of rural towns unable to drink their tap water.
It’s only fair government step in to help those enduring third world living conditions, due to government draining of lakesand mismanagement of our river system.
Brown water crisis
The small town of Billimari, near Cowra, is one of several towns where potable water is too dangerous to drink.
Ironically, Billimari is an Aboriginal word meaning ‘plenty of water’.
Menindee now has plenty ofbrown water coming out of taps. Menindee is where locals begged governments not to drain their lake in 2017, because the lake supplies their drinking water. Governments ignored them.
Residents in Wilcannia, Hay, Cootamundra, Ganmain, Coolah and Yass have also reported foul-tasting tap water to us.
Walgett has faced such severe drinking water restrictions that generous Dubbo residents have supplied them with bottled water via a Facebook campaign.
But why are drought-stricken neighbouring towns carrying the can for the governments who caused this mess?
Last weekend, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian went to Coogee Beach. She pledged millions of dollars to clean the beach swimming water there.
It’s now time for Gladys to come out west to help those who can’t even drink the tap water.
State of emergency time
If an oil spill poisoned a river, killing one million fish and robbing towns of their drinking water, the NSW Government would declare a state of emergency.
This would force government agencies to get out to affected areas; and help the many residents who can’t afford expensive bottled water.
Under NSW state law, the Premier can call a state of emergency due to: fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, accident, epidemic or warlike action which endangers people’s health.
There are several state government departments that administer water, employing thousands of bureaucrats.
Why not get them out to Menindee, Walgett, Billimari and other affected towns, to set up water hubs and to distribute free bottled water?
It’s the least the government could do.
Royal Commission next
We’ve both traveled to third world countries like Papua New Guinea, India and Cambodia. Not being able to drink the tap water was the biggest difference between those places and Australia.
That’s why it’s disgraceful we’ve let things come to this in our regional towns.
Clean drinking water should be the number one priority of any civilised nation, ranking well above Sydney stadiums and beaches.
This is why we urgently need a federal royal commission into how governments manage our rivers.
A royal commission will expose the government’s bad decisions on draining lakes; and flush out wealthy National Party donors who rort the system.
But Royal Commissions can take years, and we have a crisis now.
The state government needs to get cracking. It’s time for immediate state of emergency-style provision of free bottled water to towns like Menindee, Walgett and Billmari, where tap water is too dangerous to drink.
Roy Butler is the SFF candidate for Barwon. Helen Dalton is the SFF candidate for Murray.
TAINTED water has been flowing through taps at Burdekin schools. Uranium and selenium has been detected in the Millaroo and Dalbeg water supplies at levels higher than the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines recommend.
Queensland Health has declared the water safe to drink, but rainwater tanks have been subsidised for concerned residents. Burdekin Shire Council CEO Graham Webb said the council was alerted to water quality issues earlier this year.
But while the council was responsible for the Ayr and Home Hill water supplies, Mr Webb said Sunwater administrated water supplies to the western townships of Clare, Dalbeg and Millaroo. Mr Webb said Sunwater was obliged to follow the same regulation for quality and quantity of drinking water as local governments.
“Regular testing is undertaken to ensure the palatability and safety of the drinking water” Mr Webb said.
Sunwater Ayr business manager Tom Wallwork said Sunwater identified the threat last year, while treatment plants were being upgraded across the State. Mr Wallwork said Sunwater began monthly tests of the two groundwater supplies at Dalbeg and Millaroo last February.
“The two small bore water supplies adjacent to the towns were found to contain uranium and selenium, which are naturally occurring in the groundwater out there” Mr Wallwork
“We had never tested for uranium before, which is also naturally occurring in the Burdekin catchment”. A consistent level was detected, and it was found to be slightly higher than the Australian Guidelines. We sought advice from Queensland Health, who told us there would be no adverse health effects”
Mr Wallwork said the small water supplies serviced eight properties in Dalbeg, and 14 in Millaroo, including the primary school. “We have notified community members and each customer was hand delivered a letter in March to explain the situation, so as not to cause panic”; he said.
But while the water has been declared safe to drink, Mr Wallwork said Sunwater would assist residents financially to install rainwater tanks, or upgrade old ones. Millaroo State School teaching principal Sue Jackson said the school had been proactive in supplying an alternative water supply for their 20 primary aged students.
“Either they can bring water from home, or get water from our filtered rainwater tank” she said.
Ms Jackson said the school had accepted Sunwater’s offer of assistance to help upgrade rainwater tanks. Ms Jackson said the community had not been unduly alarmed at the detection of uranium in the water. “A few people are concerned about the town’s swimming pool, but really it’s a fact of life now and country people will just get up and get on with it.”
Queensland Health Townsville director environmental services John Piispanen yesterday said the water posed no threat to community health. “Queensland Health undertook a detailed assessment of the water and it was considered safe to drink”. Mr Piispanen said. However, he would not reveal any possible health implications linked to drinking water with levels of uranium or selenium higher than the Australian standard.
“Queensland Health won’t speculate about possible implications if the water was not safe to drink”. Mr Wallwork said Ayr and Home Hill water supplies had also been tested. “They are no concern at all, they are well below the standard”.
Mr Wallwork said it was likely a uranium deposit behind Townsville at Keelbottom Creek was responsible for the tainted groundwater.
TAINTED water has been flowing through taps at Burdekin schools. Uranium and selenium has been detected in the Millaroo and Dalbeg water supplies at levels higher than the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines recommend.
Queensland Health has declared the water safe to drink, but rainwater tanks have been subsidised for concerned residents. Burdekin Shire Council CEO Graham Webb said the council was alerted to water quality issues earlier this year.
But while the council was responsible for the Ayr and Home Hill water supplies, Mr Webb said Sunwater administrated water supplies to the western townships of Clare, Dalbeg and Millaroo. Mr Webb said Sunwater was obliged to follow the same regulation for quality and quantity of drinking water as local governments.
“Regular testing is undertaken to ensure the palatability and safety of the drinking water” Mr Webb said.
Sunwater Ayr business manager Tom Wallwork said Sunwater identified the threat last year, while treatment plants were being upgraded across the State. Mr Wallwork said Sunwater began monthly tests of the two groundwater supplies at Dalbeg and Millaroo last February.
“The two small bore water supplies adjacent to the towns were found to contain uranium and selenium, which are naturally occurring in the groundwater out there” Mr Wallwork
“We had never tested for uranium before, which is also naturally occurring in the Burdekin catchment”. A consistent level was detected, and it was found to be slightly higher than the Australian Guidelines. We sought advice from Queensland Health, who told us there would be no adverse health effects”
Mr Wallwork said the small water supplies serviced eight properties in Dalbeg, and 14 in Millaroo, including the primary school. “We have notified community members and each customer was hand delivered a letter in March to explain the situation, so as not to cause panic”; he said.
But while the water has been declared safe to drink, Mr Wallwork said Sunwater would assist residents financially to install rainwater tanks, or upgrade old ones. Millaroo State School teaching principal Sue Jackson said the school had been proactive in supplying an alternative water supply for their 20 primary aged students.
“Either they can bring water from home, or get water from our filtered rainwater tank” she said.
Ms Jackson said the school had accepted Sunwater’s offer of assistance to help upgrade rainwater tanks. Ms Jackson said the community had not been unduly alarmed at the detection of uranium in the water. “A few people are concerned about the town’s swimming pool, but really it’s a fact of life now and country people will just get up and get on with it.”
Queensland Health Townsville director environmental services John Piispanen yesterday said the water posed no threat to community health. “Queensland Health undertook a detailed assessment of the water and it was considered safe to drink”. Mr Piispanen said. However, he would not reveal any possible health implications linked to drinking water with levels of uranium or selenium higher than the Australian standard.
“Queensland Health won’t speculate about possible implications if the water was not safe to drink”. Mr Wallwork said Ayr and Home Hill water supplies had also been tested. “They are no concern at all, they are well below the standard”.
Mr Wallwork said it was likely a uranium deposit behind Townsville at Keelbottom Creek was responsible for the tainted groundwater.
Since baseline testing in November 2019, the drinking water at 50 of these very small communities has been assessed for physical and chemical characteristics. This testing has found several communities with chemicals testing in excess of ADWG guideline levels. Among these the drinking water at Crocodile Hole in the Kimberley region exceeded ADWG guideline levels of both uranium and fluoride on 2 occasions. In October 2020, the Department varied contracts to include annual chemical testing for all these communities… Even when tests were done, the Department did not always act promptly to address water quality issues. It took 9 months to issue a ‘no drink’ notice to a community after a water quality test in 2019. We found that water quality testing in Crocodile Hole in the Kimberley in December 2019 showed levels of fluoride and uranium above ADWG guideline levels.
WA Auditor Report – Delivering Essential Services to Remote Aboriginal Communities 2021 June
6 tests (~24%) above or equal to ADWG Child Guideline 2017-2019
Nov 2018 + Jul 2019: 54mg/L (highest)
Average 2017-2019: ~47.3mg/L
One in five communities exceeded safe levels for nitrates or uranium
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Warralong (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
4 tests above ADWG Guideline 2018-2010
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Punju Ngamal (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Youngaleena (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
2 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Wandanooka (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Punju Ngamal (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
4 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
6 tests above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
WA Auditor Report – Delivering Essential Services to Remote Aboriginal Communities
Water management plans involving blending water from multiple bores have only been partly successful in managing uranium levels. They have been used in Bow River, Burringurrah and Pia Wadjari but have only been successful in Bow River. Tests in Burringurrah have detected uranium above ADWG guideline levels every year since 2012-13 and in Pia Wadjari since 2015-16. According to the Department’s 2017 RAESP Capital Works program, an estimated $2.7 million is needed to improve water quality in these 2 communities. People living in Burringurrah and Pia Wadjari face ongoing risks from higher uranium levels than specified as safe in the ADWG guidelines. P21
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.017 mg/L.”
21 tests (~62%) at or above ADWG Guideline 2017-2019
2017: 0.025mg/L (highest). ~0.018mg/L (average)
2018: 0.023mg/L (highest). ~0.016mg/L (average)
2019: 0.02mg/L (highest). ~0.017mg/L (average)
WA Auditor Report – Delivering Essential Services to Remote Aboriginal Communities
Water management plans involving blending water from multiple bores have only been partly successful in managing uranium levels. They have been used in Bow River, Burringurrah and Pia Wadjari but have only been successful in Bow River. Tests in Burringurrah have detected uranium above ADWG guideline levels every year since 2012-13 and in Pia Wadjari since 2015-16. According to the Department’s 2017 RAESP Capital Works program, an estimated $2.7 million is needed to improve water quality in these 2 communities. People living in Burringurrah and Pia Wadjari face ongoing risks from higher uranium levels than specified as safe in the ADWG guidelines. P21
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.017 mg/L.”
Pia Wadjari (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
5 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
WA Auditor Report – Delivering Essential Services to Remote Aboriginal Communities
Water management plans involving blending water from multiple bores have only been partly successful in managing uranium levels. They have been used in Bow River, Burringurrah and Pia Wadjari but have only been successful in Bow River. Tests in Burringurrah have detected uranium above ADWG guideline levels every year since 2012-13 and in Pia Wadjari since 2015-16. According to the Department’s 2017 RAESP Capital Works program, an estimated $2.7 million is needed to improve water quality in these 2 communities. People living in Burringurrah and Pia Wadjari face ongoing risks from higher uranium levels than specified as safe in the ADWG guidelines. P21
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.017 mg/L.”
Parnngurr (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
3 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Ngurawaana (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
5 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
3 tests above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
One in five communities exceeded safe levels for nitrates or uranium
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
The Pintupi people of the Kiwirrkurra community, a shire in eastern Pilbara in Western Australia, have not had access to clean running water, a basic human right, for three years.
Jodie Ward, Linda James and Bobby West Tjupurrula from the Kiwirrkurra community told National Indigenous Times of their growing concern that the state government is trying to force them off their land by making it uninhabitable.
Thought to be the last of First Nations people to have contact with non-Indigenous people, the Ngaanyatjarra Council Group reported that Kiwirrkurra Elders experienced first contact throughout the 1950-60s. They were then forcibly removed to a government settlement, enabling missile testing in the region.
In the 1980s the Kiwirrkurra community were able to return to their homelands and infrastructure was established such as an outstation and ground water bore.
However, infrastructure planning lacked structural integrity and foresight as the community was built on a clay pan, low-lying area with poor drainage.
Since 2020 the community has had no access to tap water, with their supply being subjected to monthly Do Not Drink notices.
In 2021, the Western Australian Government attempted an installation of a reverse osmosis water purifier to replace a former Water Treatment Plant, but the community advised that it has never worked.
National Indigenous Times was advised of additional layers of concern. A source advised the current WTP doesn’t meet peak demand – an assessment based on confidential data.
In addition, the waste water dam is already overflowing.
Despite attempts to gain more information, residents said they have received no other communication and no formal advice as to when the matter would be rectified.
Mr West said: “We been waiting three years. Same problem.”
He suggested that the community would like to welcome tourists to their country and share their culture, but they just drive past.
In 2022 the Australian Financial Review reported that Australians are the world’s richest people, but for three years this community has survived on bottled water delivered to the community, resembling Australian Foreign Aid, but at the expense and efforts of community groups.
In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly explicitly recognised the human right to water and sanitation and acknowledged that drinking water and sanitation are essential to the realisation of human rights.
The resolution called for state and international organisations to provide financial resources, help capacity-building and technology transfer to help countries, in particular developing countries, to provide safe, clean, accessible and affordable drinking water and sanitation for all.
National Indigenous Times was also told the packaged water has been problematic as the elderly, disabled and/or unwell have been unable to move the 10kg package.
Community members expressed the challenge of acquiring new water if a household had run out: “You need to walk for kilometres to the next town, in forty-degree heat.”
The bottled water, which comes as a 10L box with a water bladder, is also creating an extra 800 pieces of rubbish per week, which the community are unable to manage as they don’t have the necessary equipment or infrastructure.
Water management in the area has previously been managed by WA’s community services directorate and has recently been taken over by Water Corporation.
National Indigenous Times has contacted Water Corporation for comment.
Kiwirrkurra (Western Australia) – Nitrate
Nitrate:
4 tests above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
2 tests (22%) above ADWG Child Guideline 2017-2019. Both in 2019
Aug 2019: 60mg/L (highest). ~47.4mg/L (av 2019)
One in five communities exceeded safe levels for nitrates or uranium
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.017 mg/L.”
Residents of remote Kiwirrkurra are worried about tap water, but a reverse osmosis water purifier could help
For Linda James, drinking a glass of water could have serious consequences.
If she uses the wrong water, that is.
Since 2020, her community of Kiwirrkurra, a remote community on the border of Western Australia and the Northern Territory, has been advised to only drink boxed water because the local tap water has unsafe levels of fluoride.
While drinking the water doesn’t immediately make people sick, it can cause long-term health issues, especially for older people.
The Luritja woman says she thinks about it all the time, not just because she’s worried she’ll make a mistake, but because she worries her community’s elders might forget, and her young children might slip up.
Ms James is the chair of the Tjamu Tjamu Aboriginal Corporation, and distributing the water falls on her small organisation.
Seven hundred boxes of water a week are handed out to the community of 200 people, creating 1,400 pieces of rubbish.
“We don’t have the machinery for it. It’s a big mess,” she said.
It’s a temporary solution that over time is taking a toll.
Despite the town’s best efforts, foil water bags and cardboard boxes have been known to litter the landscape after escaping from the area’s relatively small tip.
“Some relatives have left because of the water,” Ms James said.
In some cases, that is because dialysis requires large volumes of extremely clean water, something the arid sandhill country around Kiwirrkurra has been unable to offer.
This means many of the community’s cultural leaders are stuck in Alice Springs, 800 kilometres away, because they are receiving treatment.
Many of them are the grandmothers and grandfathers to Kiwirrkurra’s children.
Senior Luritja man Bobby West is one of those elders. He has missed funerals because he couldn’t access treatment in his community.
He has also resorted to making day trips from neighbouring Kintore, driving 400 kilometres on rough outback roads in a day.
“We want to go back,” he said. “Looking after country, being with family, funerals. It’s very important to us,” Mr West said.
Ms James agrees.
“It makes [the community’s dialysis patients] sad, and makes them more sicker because they are away from their country and, you know, this is their home,” she said.
Medical-grade water in the desert
Kiwirrkurra’s water remains unsafe to drink, but as the new year approaches the community is quietly optimistic Mr West and other elders will be able to come home.
Remote dialysis provider Purple House biomedical engineer Michael Smith was trying to work out how the life-saving, water-hungry medical treatment could become more efficient when he stumbled on a happy accident.
Each dialysis treatment requires 400 litres of water, which can add up quickly in areas where water is scarce.
“Originally we tried to design a system that would save water, because it’s precious in the desert communities where we offer dialysis,” he said.
In the process of making a more water-efficient system, he discovered a way to purify contaminated water for dialysis using reverse osmosis.
The discovery landed Mr Smith and his team an Australian Water Association award.
It can’t be used at a scale that would fix the community’s water supply, but Mr West said it was a welcome development.
“We should be home for Christmas … but it’s not right. This wouldn’t happen anywhere else in Australia and we need help. We need water to drink,” Mr West said.
Purple House will use the new technology in all of its new remote units and will retrofit it in clinics where water security is a serious concern.
Do not drink
Kiwirrkurra is one of Australia’s most remote communities, separated from Alice Springs by 800 kilometres of mostly unsealed roads.
The United Nations says access to safe drinking water is a human right but Kiwirrkurra remains one of the 48 Indigenous communities in Australia where the local water supply is below Australian Drinking Water health guidelines.
And until recently, it was one of 500 Australian remote communities without any water quality monitoring.
Remote communities rely on bore water, which often requires treatment to remove impurities.
“If this was near Perth, it would be fixed by now but we are still waiting after two years,” Ms James said.
Ms James has travelled to Perth, she’s invited ministers to visit, she’s written emails and made phone calls.
“We just want to be heard,” she said.
A 2022 report shows Kiwirrkurra’s water contamination was only picked up in 2020, when monitoring began and the WA government issued a “do not drink” notice for the community.
In 2021 the state government installed its own reverse osmosis water purifier, but it didn’t work and it is still working to resolve the issue.
In the meantime, the community is left with boxed water that keeps Ms James awake at night and with more rubbish than it can handle.
The WA Department of Communities has been contacted for comment.
Jinparinya (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Wurrenranginy (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
6 tests above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Woolah (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
4 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Residents of Wangkatjungka community, 130km south-east of Fitzroy Crossing in Western Australia’s Kimberley region, have taken to social media to raise concerns about the quality of the drinking water in the area.
An image shared earlier this month by one resident showed a bowl of light brown tap water containing sediments.
Vanessa Smith wrote: “This is what people are drinking out in Wangkatjungka.”
“Just filled this plate from my kitchen sink and this is dirt. I had to put it on social media just to get attention to whoever got any concerns. This is not good at all due to health wise,” she said.
“This has been happening for a very, very long time in this community, something needs to be done ASAP. I think the whole community water pipes need upgrades.
“Time to buy water from the shop. Can’t trust what’s in this water now.”
Last Wednesday Water Corporation issued a precautionary boil water alert in Wangkatjungka “following unauthorised entry to a water tank”.
A spokesperson for the Water Corporation told National Indigenous Times that while work was underway to address the matter the community needed to boil and then cool all water for drinking, washing dishes, brushing teeth and food preparation until it could be confirmed to be safe. The alert was lifted on Saturday, 21 October.
The spokesperson said that “with the exception of any temporary boil water alerts”, such as that issued on 18 October, “the drinking water in Wangkatjungka is safe to drink”.
“This temporary discolouration in the supply was caused by traces of naturally-occurring iron, not dirt, in the local groundwater source, as is commonly found in groundwater across WA. The iron can make its way into pipes and settle, sometimes making the water look discoloured, but it is harmless and the water is safe to use,” they said.
“Discoloured water events can happen at any time but are often the result of a change in the water pipes, such as a sudden increase in the rate or direction of water flow, that can stir up this naturally-occurring sediment, causing it to become suspended in the water.
“On this occasion, work undertaken on the Wangkatjungka supply scheme on 10 October 2023 required water to be flushed through the pipe network, resulting in this temporary discolouration. Temporary discolouration in the community is also associated with regular flushing to proactively prevent the build-up of iron in the pipes. Running a tap for two minutes can help clear any discolouration caused by this routine maintenance.”
Water Corporation assumed responsibility on 1 July this year for the delivery of water and wastewater services to Wangkatjungka and 140 other Aboriginal communities. It had previously been the responsibility of the Department of Communities.
Representatives from the Corporation have met the Wangkatjungka Community Council chief executive and have begun working to identify potential options to improve the community’s long-term water supply.
The Water Corporation said that it will work in partnership with communities to conduct “a comprehensive assessment of the local supply scheme” to better understand their individual requirements, as part of “a detailed planning and design process”.
The Water Corporation’s new Aboriginal Communities Water Services (ACWS) program will conduct the work to “provide safer and more reliable drinking water and wastewater services, helping enhance long-term health and wellbeing outcomes”.
In September, Mowanjum, near Derby, became the first community in WA to receive improved water infrastructure under ACWS following completion of upgrades to its wastewater treatment plant, becoming the state’s first licensed plant in an Aboriginal community.
Wangkatjungka (Western Australia) – E.coli
E.coli:
2 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Wangkatjungka (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Noonkanbah (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
4 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
The chairman of a remote Aboriginal community in the Kimberley says WA’s state-owned water supplier failed to effectively notify the community after potentially deadly amoeba and bacteria were detected in their system.
On January 12, the Ngumpan community, about 100 kilometres south-east of Fitzroy Crossing, was issued an alert about unsafe water by Water Corporation.
The community was told to boil and cool water for drinking and playing due to the presence of thermophilic naegleria and E. coli in their water supply.
Ngumpan Aboriginal Corporation chairman Alastair Hobbs said he was never directly contacted.
He said as chairman he was disappointed he only found out through social media and had no opportunity to get extra information.
“We didn’t know there’s something in the water,” Mr Hobbs said.
“Finally, we found out through Facebook.
“That’s when the people[in Ngumpan] started being afraid, especially [when] they say it’s dangerous for the kids.”
Daily temperatures around Ngumpan at the time were in the mid-30 degree Celsius to low 40C range, which made it hard to follow the recommendations.
“It’s pretty hard for us,” Mr Hobbs said.
“There’s a store just up there, 10km from here, so we have to go buy drinking water through the bottle.”
All young children in Ngumpan, a community of about three dozen people, have since been temporarily sent to a nearby community to ensure they are not at risk from the contaminants.
A Water Corporation spokesperson said an investigation was ongoing, but the contamination was likely due to a technical fault with the chlorinator on the community’s supply.
The spokesperson said the Ngumpan community was notified “within the hour” on January 12 via email and phone of the water quality detections.
“In addition, the advisory was posted on Facebook by Nindilingarri Cultural Health Services that same evening, and our regional service provider also notified community members in person when they attended the following morning for repairs,” the spokesperson said.
The spokesperson said the community would be advised as soon as possible when the water was safe to drink again.
Infection rare but fatal
Professor Stuart Khan, head of the School of Civil Engineering at University of Sydney, said the risk of infection from thermophilic naegleria was rare, but nearly always fatal.
Drinking contaminated water was OK, but infection occurred when water entered the nose by force — a possible scenario when kids were playing with hoses.
The water quality expert did not comment on the situation in Ngumpan specifically, but said contamination with the amoeba should always be communicated quickly.
“It’s very important that the communities be notified … because they need to be able to take action to prevent themselves from infection,” Professor Khan said.
Professor Khan said there had been a number of “very tragic” cases of infection in Australia over the last few decades.
“This is something we need to take very seriously,” he said.
He said the two contaminants found in Ngumpan should not be present if the water was correctly treated with chlorine disinfection.
Communication criticised
Mr Hobbs said he regularly found communication with the state’s water supplier to be inadequate.
After seeing the alert, he said there had been minimal contact and the community still had no information about the specific risks that were posed.
Mr Hobbs said he had not heard of anyone from Water Corporation attending in person, but hoped the response would be better next time.
“We have to cope with it, until everything is all good to drink,” he said.
Ngumpan (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
4 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Ngalingkadji (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
One in five communities exceeded safe levels for nitrates or uranium
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Moongardie (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
3 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Mindibungu (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Mandangala (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
4 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Looma (New) (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Lamboo Gunian (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Ladjardarr Bay (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
3 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Kupartiya (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Kandiwal (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
4 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
3 tests above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Kadjina (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
5 tests above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Jarimadangah (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
10 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Galeru Gorge (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
2 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Dodnun (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
Naegleria Species:
3 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Budgarjook (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Bow River (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
5 tests above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Bow River (Western Australia) – Uranium
Uranium: ADWG 0.017ug/L
6 uranium detections (19%) above ADWG 2017-19
2017: 0.021mg/L (highest). ~0.015mg/L (average)
2018: 0.013mg/L (highest). ~0.013mg/L (average)
2019: 0.015mg/L (highest). ~0.012mg/L (average)
Water management plans involving blending water from multiple bores have only been partly successful in managing uranium levels. They have been used in Bow River, Burringurrah and Pia Wadjari but have only been successful in Bow River.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Bobieding (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
One in five communities exceeded safe levels for nitrates or uranium
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
One in five communities exceeded safe levels for nitrates or uranium
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
One in five communities exceeded safe levels for nitrates or uranium
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
Tjirrkarli (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2012-2014
1 test above ADWG Guideline 2018-2020
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
Fremantle forward Sam Switkowski has joined researchers from The University of Western Australia in investigating ways to bring fresh water to remote Aboriginal communities in the Goldfields of WA as part of a plan to tackle the devastating effects of kidney disease and type 2 diabetes among locals.
The AFL footballer, in his final year of an environmental engineering degree at RMIT University, is part of a team from Optimos, D2K Information, RMIT, UWA and the University of Queensland who’ve been designing and testing pilot technologies to remove nitrate from drinking water.
It follows ground-breaking research undertaken as part of the Western Desert Kidney Health Project (WDKHP) which found that nitrate contaminated drinking water was a contributing factor to higher than expected rates of kidney disease and type 2 diabetes in the Goldfields.
Dr Christine Jeffries-Stokes, from UWA’s Medical School and the Rural Clinical School of WA, said the WDKHP study took place between 2010 and 2014 and covered an area larger than the state of Victoria in the Goldfields and Western Desert which starts 500km east of Perth and extends 2000km to the border with South Australia.
It saw health assessments carried out on 597 adults and 502 children in five small towns and six remote Aboriginal communities, representing almost 80 per cent of the Aboriginal population, with risk factors for kidney disease and type 2 diabetes present in participants of all ages, including children as young as two.
“The high levels of acid and blood in the urine of both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal participants suggests factors contributing to chronic metabolic acidosis and inflammation or irritation of the urinary tract need to be explored, including drinking water which is known to be poor,” said Dr Jeffries-Stokes, who worked on the project with co-chief investigator Annette Stokes.
“In most of the study, the communities’ drinking water is heavily contaminated with nitrates and, in at least one community, uranium. One of the effects of uranium ingestion is kidney inflammation and damage, which is exacerbated by the presence of nitrate and the formation of uranyl nitrate.”
In two communities – Mulga Queen and Mount Margaret – a 2020 review by the Western Australian Auditor General showed there’d been no improvement in water quality over the past five years, and nitrate levels remained above international and Australian health guidelines, Dr Jeffries-Stokes said.
As the only WA-based person in the RMIT team who’d been tasked with looking at water treatment options, Mr Switkowski was able to visit Mulga Queen and surrounding communities in June this year to take water samples and speak directly to locals about their drinking water challenges.
“The other three members of my team – Matthew Barham, Matt Fitzpatrick and Lara Stovell – are currently testing three potential water treatment systems at RMIT in Melbourne to work out which will be the most efficient and the most feasible to implement,” Mr Switkowski said.
“For me personally, it’s been fantastic to experience another side of WA and to have been welcomed into several indigenous communities, thanks to Christine and her partner Geoffrey. It’s clear these communities aren’t getting the essential services they deserve, and as a result their health and wellbeing is at a higher risk.
“I’m incredibly grateful for the experience the project has given me and the opportunity that RMIT has provided in doing something purposeful and helpful for indigenous people. It’s ignited a passion in me and a determination to make a positive impact to those who don’t have access to clean and safe drinking water across Australia and the world.”
“It’s ignited a passion in me and a determination to make a positive impact to those who don’t have access to clean and safe drinking water across Australia and the world.”
Sam Switkowski
Dr Jeffries-Stokes said the increasing burden of kidney disease and type 2 diabetes is a global problem, especially for remote and Indigenous populations. In Australia, the average life expectancy of Aboriginal Australians is at least eight years lower than for non-Aboriginal Australians.
“This disparity is more marked in remote areas and contributing factors are the effects of type 2 diabetes, kidney disease and their associated conditions and complications. Prior to our study, type 2 diabetes had been found to be the leading cause of avoidable mortality for Aboriginal residents of the Goldfields region, accounting for 20 per cent of deaths,” she said.
“Diseases of the kidney accounted for six per cent of all avoidable deaths in the region and the area had been estimated to have the second highest rate of end-stage kidney disease in Australia. Until our study there hadn’t been too much investigation into the reasons why.”
One in five communities exceeded safe levels for nitrates or uranium
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Mulga Queen (Western Australia) – Naegleria Species
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
The primary action taken from the beginning of the issue was to protect the drinking water supply. After May 2002 low levels of benzene were detected in the drinking water supply which was consequently disconnected by the Coffs Harbour City Council in consultation with NSW Health. Tanker trucks transported over 6 million litres of drinking water from Red Hill Reservoir to Coramba over a period of 2 months.
The second key risk management strategy was establishing regular communication between agencies involved in the issue. Regular teleconferences and meetings were implemented to strengthen communication. The third main strategy was to maintain communication with residents and the general public. Coffs Harbour City Council created a webpage providing transparency to the issue by releasing information about test results and any new developments arising.
2002
On 12 June 2002 Council established a new water intake upstream from the contamination site. On 18 June 2002, 2.0µg/L benzene was detected in the newly established drinking water supply. Levels of 4.0 µg/L benzene were recorded on 24 June 2002. Water pumping was ceased and water carting commenced once more.
A successful pre-treatment drinking water plant was constructed, operating between August 2002 and January 2005. Water was treated by aeration and ‘activated carbon’ – charcoal treated with oxygen. The charcoal adsorbs (attachment by chemical attraction) odorous materials and other carbon-based impurities.
2005
In 2005 Coramba ceased sourcing and treating drinking water from the Orara River and established a connection to the Regional Water Supply from the Nymboida River. The Karangi Dam is connected to this supply as a reserve when the water quality of the Nymboida River is unsuitable for use.
The Coramba Fuel Contamination Interagency Community Working Party was created in December 2006 as a joint collaboration with the OEH (Office of Environment and Heritage), NSW Department of Health, Council, Premier’s Office and community members to work on ways to remediate the land.
Based on health considerations the concentration of benzene in drinking water should not
exceed 0.001 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Benzene is a clear, colourless-to-yellow liquid and highly flammable aromatic hydrocarbon. It is presentin petroleum products such as motor fuels and solvents, and motor vehicle emissions constitute the mainsource of benzene in the environment. Benzene occurs naturally in crude oil and coal and is an additive and a by-product of oil-refining processes. It constitutes approximately 1-2% of unleaded gasoline by volume (US DHHS, 2011). Tobacco smoke is another significant source of exposure (WHO, 2010). It also occurs in natural gas and emissions from volcanoes and forest fires.
Human exposure to benzene occurs primarily through inhalation (WHO, 2010). When released to surface waters, benzene rapidly volatilises to the air (WHO, 2010). Benzene is not persistent in surface water or soil and either volatilises to air or is degraded by bacteria under aerobic conditions (WHO, 2010). For water contamination, benzene is therefore of most concern in groundwater. Benzene can also occur in foods and drinks as a product of the reaction between benzoate and ascorbic acid, and has been found in soft drinks in the UK at concentrations as high as 0.028 mg/L (FSA, 2006).
Benzene is also used widely as an industrial solvent by the chemical and pharmaceutical industries in theproduction of styrene/ethylbenzene, cumene/phenol and cyclohexane. The use of benzene as a solvent has been greatly reduced in recent years. Unlike other petroleum hydrocarbons such as ethylbenzene, toluene and xylene the odour threshold for
benzene is relatively high at 10 mg/L (WHO, 2003). ADWG 2011
2021 Feb – Young (NSW) – E.coli – Boil Water Notice
Boil Water Alert for Young Water Supply lifted (Hilltops Council)
14/02/2021
Council are pleased to announce that the precautionary boil water alert for the Young water supply has been lifted. Council has worked in close cooperation with NSW Health who have advised, following the review of several samples tested by an independent accredited laboratory, that the water is safe for consumption.
The boil water alert was enacted as a precautionary measure after a sample from the Young water supply returned positive E.Coli results. Council have conducted extensive sampling, flushing and retesting of the water supply and all samples returned by independent accredited laboratory prove that the water is safe to drink. In this regard, NSW Health have deemed that there is no ongoing public health risk to the Young Water Supply System users.
Safety of our community is our highest priority and thank the community for their cooperation during this period and apologise for any inconvenience caused.
Council acknowledges the collaborative and supportive approach that the Murrumbidgee & Southern NSW Local Health Districts Public Health Unit has provided throughout this process.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
National Park (Tasmania) – Total Haloacetic Acid’s
16/7/20: National Park (Tasmania) Total Haloacetic Acid (HAA7) 98 ug/L
28/10/20: National Park (Tasmania) Total Haloacetic Acid (HAA7) 122 ug/L
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
1/7/20: Triabunna (Tasmania) Total Haloacetic Acid (HAA7) 99 ug/L
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
Debbie Padroth and her partner, Pete Richer, stared down a firestorm to save their home at Balmoral, south-west of Sydney, but two months are concerned about the safety of their drinking water from asbestos contamination.
The couple’s home was in the path of the massive Green Wattle Creek Fire as it tore through the Wingecarribee Shire on December 19, 2019.
Three of their neighbours who were evacuated lost their homes in the fire.
“It’s been raining — that is leaking into the creek system and the winds are blowing dust onto our property.”
“They both contained asbestos, there are asbestos contamination signs out the front of their yards and only one of the homes has been sprayed.”
Where contamination is found, and the property is close to where people are still living, the NSW Government has promised a PVC binder spray will be used to further minimise the risk of asbestos particles spreading.
Concerns about asbestos in their drinking water
More than two months on from the fires, Ms Padroth is concerned that the debris, dust and asbestos fibres, being blown around from the destroyed homes, has contaminated her water supply.
“Maybe the horse has already bolted, so I’m just wondering if we can get the water tested, because we don’t want to waste water — 60,000 litres of water.
“I don’t want to throw that out, but if I could get it tested, then it would be OK.
There are concerns thousands of tonnes of fire retardant dropped across NSW could pose a risk to the state’s dwindling drinking water supplies and aquatic life, especially with forecast rain threatening to wash chemical residues into catchments.
In a pink deluge from the sky, the retardants have been credited with saving homes and lives this bushfire season.
But while the retardants are not believed to be harmful to humans or mammals, experts hold concerns over fish kills and harmful blue-green algal blooms when the retardants are used near waterways.
Blue-green algae is a type of bacteria which can form toxic scums and make water unsuitable for drinking, recreational activities and agriculture.
“If fire retardant is applied near waterways or is washed into these areas with rain, there is the potential for it to directly affect fish and other aquatic creatures and indirectly by promoting algal blooms by increasing nutrients in water,” said associate professor Tina Bell from the University of Sydney.
Dr Bell was involved in a study on the effect of one of the retardants, Phos-Chek, on vegetation in eastern Victoria in 2005.
Fire retardants are essentially fertilisers, containing ammonium mixed with thickeners and corrosion inhibitors to prevent damage to the aircraft that drop them.
Retardants coat vegetation in a chemical residue that prevents or slows down ignition, until it is removed by rain or erosion.
They are sprayed strategically to create a barrier to slow a fire’s spread, working for up to 18 hours or more.
Firefighting foams – known as Class A foams – are also deployed by the Rural Fire Service to smother bushfires that are already alight.
They are considered much safer than some of the Class B foams used on fuel and chemical fires, which have historically contained toxic PFAS compounds.
One of the main fire retardants used by the NSW Rural Fire Service is Phos-Chek, known for its characteristic red pigment, which is used by pilots to track where it has been sprayed.
While the RFS would not confirm the volumes nor the formulations of the products it has used this season, sources told the Herald that Phos-Chek has been sprayed liberally around the state.
“Unfortunately, very little research has been done in Australia on the immediate and longer term effects of fire retardants on plant and animal communities,” Dr Bell said.
“Most of it has been done in the US and Canada where the ecosystems are quite different.”
The Phos-Chek brand was pioneered by chemical giant Monsanto in the 1960s but since 2018 has been owned by US-based Perimeter Solutions.
The general manager of Phos-Chek Australia, Darren Webb, said the product was an important tool in the arsenal for firefighters.
“The retardant is like putting a bulldozer through the vegetation … without those harsh environmental effects,” he said. “You can construct that [containment] line a lot quicker and get in there early enough before it’s got time to spread.”
Mr Webb stressed that Phos-Chek had been through an exhaustive approval process by the US Forest Service deeming it safe for use, relied on by Australian firefighting authorities.
“It’s absolutely been closely examined,” he said.
Mr Webb said the manufacturer endorsed a policy among both Australian and US fire authorities to avoid applying Phos-Chek in close proximity to waterways.
But he said that it was a matter of “weighing up the risk and benefit” when it came to using retardants in water catchment areas, because allowing the total incineration of vegetation posed its own risks.
“The ash, the sludge can come down the side of the catchment area into the waterway and create its own issues – as compared to trying to stop it coming into a catchment area [with the retardant],” Mr Webb said.
Of additional concern have been performance-enhancing additives in Phos-Chek retardants that are trade secret and exempt from public disclosure. Mr Webb said the additives had been fully disclosed to US regulatory authorities.
Dr Bell’s study found that Phos-Chek did not have a large impact on vegetation in the area tested, but did result in the death of some individual plants.
“This is not an environmentally-friendly product but if you look at it from the point of view of using it as a tool to help ground crews manage fire containment lines, there are certainly good reasons for it to be used at certain times, ” she said.
About 120 tonnes of a Phos-Chek formulation known as D75R was dropped on the devastating Caledonia fires in Victoria’s Alpine National Park in 1998.
At the time The Age reported that residents had observed an unusual oily sludge coming down a river catchment supplying 9000 people.
It was followed by more than a year of “widespread complaints” of “severe rashes, itching, sores, insomnia and eye irritations”.
NORTHERN Tablelands MP Adam Marshall has thrown a ‘financial lifebuoy’ to Inverell Shire Council, announcing the state government would provide $132,600 for upgrades to Ashford’s water treatment plant and improve the community’s potable water supply.
A total of $221,000will be spent installing a permanent automatic system for treatment of raw water when manganese levels exceed Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
The state government will provide 60 percent of the overall cost and Inverell Shire Council will contribute $89,600 to the scheme.
Mr Marshall said water quality in Ashford had been an issue since the drought.
“This project will provide long-term security of safe drinking water for the Ashford’s 570 residents and ensure the Water Treatment Plant meets population’s needs,” Mr Marshall said.
During 2019, localised storms in the Severn Catchment caused a sharp decline in water quality in the Severn River, which acts as Ashford’s town water supply.
As a result, the council was required to install emergency water treatment equipment to address increased manganese levels which were above Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“In order to ensure Ashford has the highest quality water for consumption and domestic use long-term, Council and NSW Water have come up with a plan to upgrade the water treatment plant on Beaumont Road,” Mr Marshall said.
He said the council plans to engage local contractors for certain section of the project, with work to commence in April 2021 and be completed by October next year.
Mr Marshall said the prolonged drought had highlighted shortcomings in many local water supplies and now was the time, with the positive seasonal conditions, to work towards addressing those issues.
“While many communities in the Northern Tablelands came very close to running out of water in 2019, thankfully none of them did,” he said.
“With many local water storages now back to serviceable levels I urge councils and to continue working with the State Government on investigating ways to improve long-term water security for residents.”
2018/19 Logan City Council Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
10/11/18: Spring Mountain Reservoir (Queensland) – E,coli detection 2MPN/100mL
2018/19 Logan City Council Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Bamboo Drive, Cedar Vale – Logan South Water Supply Zone (Queensland) – E.coli
16/10/18: Bamboo Drive, Cedar Vale (Queensland) – E,coli
Logan South WSZ, Bamboo Drive, Cedar Vale. E.coli detection 9MPN/100mL
2018/19 Logan City Council Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2018/19 Logan City Council Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
Drinking Water Quality Management Plan Logan City Council 2018/19
Incident Description
On 10 June 2020, whilst investigating a taste and odour enquiry at two properties at Wepham Court, Arundel, samples were collected from internal plumbing, property water meters and nearby hydrant. Analysis results showed that BTEX compounds were detected from the samples collected on the properties as well as the water meters, these compounds were not detected in the nearby hydrant. Benzene was detected at a concentration of 0.029 mg/L which is above the ADWG health guideline value of <0.001 mg/L. It was noted during the investigation that a boat was parked over the area where the water service lines enter the properties with evidence of oil or fuel spillage on the ground where the water meters and service lines were located.
Corrective and Preventive Actions
Immediately upon notification of the ADWG exceedance the incident management procedures were activated. Customers at both properties were notified immediately and informed to avoid using the water until the issue was rectified. They were supplied with bottled water during this time until repairs were completed. Civil Maintenance crews attended the site and excavated and removed all of the soil around the affected area. The polyethylene service connections from the water main were replaced with copper to prevent further contamination, as were the impacted water meters. Additional sampling was undertaken over the following weeks to confirm that the issue had been resolved.
The investigation concluded that the likely cause of the issue was a fuel or oil spillage from a boat parked over the area where the service connections were. To prevent this happening again in the future the customer was informed that they should park the boat in an area away from the water infrastructure and both customers were also given information regarding the risks of fuel spillage around the property.
(Gold Coast Water Drinking Water Quality Management Plan Annual Report 2018/19)
Based on health considerations the concentration of benzene in drinking water should not
exceed 0.001 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Benzene is a clear, colourless-to-yellow liquid and highly flammable aromatic hydrocarbon. It is presentin petroleum products such as motor fuels and solvents, and motor vehicle emissions constitute the mainsource of benzene in the environment. Benzene occurs naturally in crude oil and coal and is an additive and a by-product of oil-refining processes. It constitutes approximately 1-2% of unleaded gasoline by volume (US DHHS, 2011). Tobacco smoke is another significant source of exposure (WHO, 2010). It also occurs in natural gas and emissions from volcanoes and forest fires.
Human exposure to benzene occurs primarily through inhalation (WHO, 2010). When released to surface waters, benzene rapidly volatilises to the air (WHO, 2010). Benzene is not persistent in surface water or soil and either volatilises to air or is degraded by bacteria under aerobic conditions (WHO, 2010). For water contamination, benzene is therefore of most concern in groundwater. Benzene can also occur in foods and drinks as a product of the reaction between benzoate and ascorbic acid, and has been found in soft drinks in the UK at concentrations as high as 0.028 mg/L (FSA, 2006).
Benzene is also used widely as an industrial solvent by the chemical and pharmaceutical industries in theproduction of styrene/ethylbenzene, cumene/phenol and cyclohexane. The use of benzene as a solvent has been greatly reduced in recent years. Unlike other petroleum hydrocarbons such as ethylbenzene, toluene and xylene the odour threshold for
benzene is relatively high at 10 mg/L (WHO, 2003). ADWG 2011
6.1.1 Incident Description
On 29 August 2019, whilst investigating a taste and odour enquiry at two properties on Rainbow Drive, Mudgeeraba, samples were collected from internal plumbing, property water meters and nearby hydrants. Analysis results showed that BTEX compounds were detected from the samples collected on the properties as well as the water meters, these compounds were not detected in the nearby hydrants. Benzene was detected at a concentration of 0.0016 mg/L which is above the ADWG health guideline value of <0.001 mg/L. It was noted during the investigation that a vehicle was parked over the area where the water service lines enter the properties with evidence of oil or fuel spillage on the gutter and the road.
Corrective and Preventive Actions
Immediately upon notification of the ADWG exceedance the incident management procedures were activated. Customers at both properties were notified immediately and informed to avoid using the water until the issue was rectified. They were supplied with bottled water during this time until repairs were completed. Civil Maintenance crews attended the site and excavated and removed all of the soil around the affected area. The polyethylene service connections from the water main were replaced with copper to prevent further contamination, as were the impacted water meters. Additional sampling was undertaken over the following weeks to confirm that the issue had been resolved.
The investigation concluded that the likely cause of the issue was a fuel or oil spillage from a vehicle parked on the nature strip over the area where the service connections were. To prevent this happening again in the future the customers were informed that they should park their vehicles in the driveway and were also given information regarding the risks of fuel spillage around the property. (Gold Coast Water Drinking Water Quality Management Plan Annual Report 2018/19)
Based on health considerations the concentration of benzene in drinking water should not
exceed 0.001 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Benzene is a clear, colourless-to-yellow liquid and highly flammable aromatic hydrocarbon. It is presentin petroleum products such as motor fuels and solvents, and motor vehicle emissions constitute the mainsource of benzene in the environment. Benzene occurs naturally in crude oil and coal and is an additive and a by-product of oil-refining processes. It constitutes approximately 1-2% of unleaded gasoline by volume (US DHHS, 2011). Tobacco smoke is another significant source of exposure (WHO, 2010). It also occurs in natural gas and emissions from volcanoes and forest fires.
Human exposure to benzene occurs primarily through inhalation (WHO, 2010). When released to surface waters, benzene rapidly volatilises to the air (WHO, 2010). Benzene is not persistent in surface water or soil and either volatilises to air or is degraded by bacteria under aerobic conditions (WHO, 2010). For water contamination, benzene is therefore of most concern in groundwater. Benzene can also occur in foods and drinks as a product of the reaction between benzoate and ascorbic acid, and has been found in soft drinks in the UK at concentrations as high as 0.028 mg/L (FSA, 2006).
Benzene is also used widely as an industrial solvent by the chemical and pharmaceutical industries in theproduction of styrene/ethylbenzene, cumene/phenol and cyclohexane. The use of benzene as a solvent has been greatly reduced in recent years. Unlike other petroleum hydrocarbons such as ethylbenzene, toluene and xylene the odour threshold for
benzene is relatively high at 10 mg/L (WHO, 2003). ADWG 2011
The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 11/03/2019 at SP447. 59MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
2018/19 Urban Utilities Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 28/02/2019 at SP818. 1MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
2018/19 Urban Utilities Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 02/01/2019 at SP444. 1MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
2018/19 Urban Utilities Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
The non-compliance was a detection of manganese from a routine sample taken on 03/12/2018 at SP431. 0.58 mg/L manganese was detected. Follow up samples exhibited manganese below the ADWG health limit. 2018/2019 Urban Utilities Drinking Water Quality Management Plan Report
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
12/3/19: The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 12/3/19 at SP061. 2MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. This area is supplied by Sparkes Hill reservoir, which is owned by Seqwater. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
2018/19 Urban Utilities Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
14/1/2019: Pallara (Queensland) – E.coli. The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a non-routine sample taken during a new main installation. 3MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
2018/19 Urban Utilities Drinkiing Water Quality Management Plan Report
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2019/20: Maiden Gully/Marong Ammonia 0.499mg/L. 2019/20 average: 0.268mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Watinuma (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids
24/2/20: Watinuma Total Dissolved Solids 789mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Watinuma (South Australia) – Silica
24/2/20: Watinuma Silica 79.1mg/L
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
24/11/20: Warnertown (South Australia) Lead – Total 0.0224mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
1/10/19: Saltia Creek Total Uranium 0.0195mg/L (max) Non-potable
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.017 mg/L.”
Saltia Creek (South Australia) Hardness
1/10/19: Saltia Creek Total Hardness 944mg/L (max) Non-potable
1/10/19: Saltia Creek Hardness 652mg/L (non-potable)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Saltia Creek (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids
1/10/19: Saltia Creek Total Dissolved Solids 1930mg/L (max) Non-potable
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Saltia Creek (South Australia) – Chloride
1/10/19: Saltia Creek Chloride 735mg/L (non-potable)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Saltia Creek (South Australia) – Sodium
1/10/19: Saltia Creek Sodium 288mg/L (max) Non-potable
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Based on health considerations, the concentration of antimony in drinking water should not
exceed the limit of determination of 0.003 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Antimony, as the trivalent (Sb(III)) or pentavalent (Sb(V)) salts, has occasionally been detected in
natural source waters. Occurrences are more common in areas near lead or copper smelting operations.
Antimony–tin solder is beginning to replace lead solder and hence exposure to antimony in drinking water may increase in the future.
Antimony alloys and compounds are used in semiconductors, batteries, anti-friction compounds, ammunition, cable sheathing, and flame-proofing compounds. Antimony salts are used in glass, and in the manufacture of ceramics and pottery.
Studies overseas have generally found low concentrations in drinking water, typically less than
0.005 mg/L, but higher concentrations have been reported occasionally.
There are few data available on antimony concentrations in food. The United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry has suggested that average daily consumption of antimony in food is about 0.018 mg.
Salisbury Plain (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Salisbury Plain (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 74ug/L (max), 52.25ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
2022/23 Salisbury Plain (South Australia) Chloropicrin
2022/23: Salisbury Plain (South Australia) Chloropicrin 1ug/L (max), 0.5ug/L (av.)
No Guideline level for Chloropicrin
Chloropicrin is formed in water by the reaction of chlorine with humic acids, amino acids,
and nitrophenols. The presence of nitrates increases the amount formed (6). Chloropicrin has
been detected in drinking-water; however, in the presence of reducing agents, it is converted
into chloroform
11/7/19: Point Pass Ammonia 0.53mg/L. 2019/20 average: 0.09mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer. (South Australia) – E.coli – Non Potable
2019/20: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer. E.coli positive detections from 3 out of 4 samples. Highest detection 45 MPN/100mL. (av 2019/20 23.25 MPN/100mL) Non potable drinking water
28/2/20: Mannum-Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No.2 Palmer E.coli 28MPN/100mL (Non potable system-Non potable zone)
17/11/20: Mannum-Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No.2 Palmer E.coli 21MPN/100mL (Non potable system-Non potable zone)
15/2/21: Mannum-Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No.2 Palmer E.coli 14MPN/100mL (Non potable system-Non potable zone)
19/5/21: Mannum-Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No.2 Palmer E.coli 6MPN/100mL (Non potable system-Non potable zone)
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer. (South Australia) – Turbidity – Non Potable
16/7/19: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer, Turbidity 63NTU. 2019/20 av. 39.92 NTU Non-potable drinking water
16/6/22: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer Non Potable Turbidity 100 NTU (max) (62.49 NTU av. 2021/22)
From a total of 115 samples, two exceedances of turbidity have occurred from 2003 to 2013. The exceedances of 29.6 and 6 NTU occurred on 21 Jan 2004 and 8 Jul 2009, respectively.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer. (South Australia) – Iron – Non Potable
16/7/19: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer, Iron 5.971mg/L. 2019/20 av 3.094mg/L Non-potable drinking water
18/10/21: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer Non Potable Iron 5.328 mg/L (max). (3.352 mg/L av. 2021-22)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer. Non Potable – Aluminium
20/8/19: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer. Aluminium 4.622mg/L. Non-potable drinking water
18/8/21: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer Non Potable Aluminium 1.707mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer. Non Potable – Lanthanum
20/8/19: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer, Lanthanum 0.0016mg/L.
20/8/20: Mannum-Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No.2 Palmer Lanthanum 0.0013mg/L
18/8/21: Mannum – Adelaide Pipeline after Pump Station No 2 Palmer Non Potable Lanthanum 0.0017 mg/L (max). (3.352 mg/L av. 2021-22)
GUIDELINE
Based on human health considerations, the concentration of lanthanum in drinking water should not exceed 0.002 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION Lanthanum is an element in the rare earth group (also known as lanthanides group) that can enter water via run-off from agricultural soil where it has been used as fertiliser, from the weathering of rock, from specific discharges or use as a phosphate binder, and from leaching from the tailings of rare earth mining…
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER Australian drinking water supplies have not been routinely monitored for lanthanum. Limited analytical results from a small number of water sources in Australia indicate levels orders of magnitude lower than when lanthanum is applied for phosphate control. The National Industrial Chemical Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS) recommends regular monitoring of Australian drinking water reservoirs if they have been subject to the addition of a lanthanum-based water treatment product (NICNAS 2014). In this circumstance, as part of a drinking water supply system assessment, consideration should be given to the possibility of accumulation of lanthanum in the water or sediment following multiple applications of a lanthanum-based product.
In Australia, NICNAS reviewed the literature on lanthanum in its Secondary Notification Assessment for PhoslockTM (NICNAS 2014).
20/2/20: Mount Mary (South Australia) Turbidity 14 NTU (max). 2019/20 av: 2.38NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
15/2/22: Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto Non Potable E.coli 390 MPN/100mL. (180.75 MPN/100mL av. 2020-21)
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto. (South Australia) – Turbidity – Non Potable
17/12/19: Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto. Turbidity 65NTU. 2019/20 av. 45.67 NTU Non-potable drinking water
16/6/22: Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto Non Potable Turbidity 130 NTU (max) (64.53 NTU av. 2021/22)
From a total of 115 samples, two exceedances of turbidity have occurred from 2003 to 2013. The exceedances of 29.6 and 6 NTU occurred on 21 Jan 2004 and 8 Jul 2009, respectively.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto. (South Australia) – Iron – Non Potable
16/7/19: Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto. Iron 6.659mg/L. av 2019/20: 3.7365mg/L. Non-potable drinking water
16/6/22: Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto Non Potable Iron 10.05mg/L. (4.028 mg/L av. 2020-21)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto. (South Australia) – Aluminium – Non Potable
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Murray Bridge – Onka P/L 5ways corner Monarto. (South Australia) – Lanthanum – Non Potable
Based on human health considerations, the concentration of lanthanum in drinking water should not exceed 0.002 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION Lanthanum is an element in the rare earth group (also known as lanthanides group) that can enter water via run-off from agricultural soil where it has been used as fertiliser, from the weathering of rock, from specific discharges or use as a phosphate binder, and from leaching from the tailings of rare earth mining…
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER Australian drinking water supplies have not been routinely monitored for lanthanum. Limited analytical results from a small number of water sources in Australia indicate levels orders of magnitude lower than when lanthanum is applied for phosphate control. The National Industrial Chemical Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS) recommends regular monitoring of Australian drinking water reservoirs if they have been subject to the addition of a lanthanum-based water treatment product (NICNAS 2014). In this circumstance, as part of a drinking water supply system assessment, consideration should be given to the possibility of accumulation of lanthanum in the water or sediment following multiple applications of a lanthanum-based product.
In Australia, NICNAS reviewed the literature on lanthanum in its Secondary Notification Assessment for PhoslockTM (NICNAS 2014).
2019/20: Koonunga (South Australia) pH (average) 8.95pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Fosters Creek (South Australia) – E.coli (Non-potable drinking water)
13/9/21: Fosters Creek Customer Tap Non Potable E.coli 2 MPN/100mL
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Fosters Creek (South Australia) – Chloride (Non-potable drinking water)
2/12/19: Fosters Creek (South Australia) Tap Water, Chloride 211mg/L. Non-potable drinking water
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Fosters Creek (South Australia) – Hardness (Non potable drinking water)
2/9/19: Fosters Creek Tap Water, Hardness as CaCO3 361mg/L. Non-potable drinking water
2/12/21: Fosters Creek Non Potable Hardness as CaCO3 314mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Fosters Creek (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids. (Non Potable Drinking Water)
2/9/19: Fosters Creek (South Australia) Tap Water, Total Dissolved Solids (by EC) 773mg/L. (2019/20 av 718.25mg/L).
16/5/22: Fosters Creek Non Potable Total Dissolved Solids 823mg/L (max), (758.75mg/L av. 2021/22)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Fosters Creek (South Australia) – Turbidity (Non potable drinking water)
2/9/19: Fosters Creek (South Australia) Tap Water, Turbidity 8.5NTU. 2019/20 av. 6.975 NTU
16/5/22: Fosters Creek Non Potable Turbidity 18 NTU (max), (9.79NTU av. 2021/22)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Fosters Creek (South Australia) – Iron (Non potable drinking water)
2/9/19: Fosters Creek Tap Water, Iron 2.02mg/L. 2019/20 av 1.683mg/L. Non-potable drinking water
13/9/21: Fosters Creek Customer Tap Non Potable Iron 2.665mg/L (max), (2.03mg/L av. 2021/22)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2019/2020 Davenport (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2019/20: Davenport (South Australia (pH (average) 9.07pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2019/2020 Bagot Well (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2019/20: Bagot Well pH (average) 9.21pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2019/2020 Allendale/Allendale North (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2019/20: Alllendale (South Australia) pH (average) 9.23pH units
2019/20: Alllendale North (South Australia) – Marrabel Road pH (average) 9.07pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2019/20: Allendale North (South Australia) – Ammonia
2/4/20: Allendale North (South Australia) Ammonia free as N 0.795mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
2019/2020 Alford (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2019/20: Alford pH (average) 9.23pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
17/7/2018: Mt Crosby Water Treatment Plant – Acrylamide
Non-routine Investigative monitoring returned an ADWG health exceedance for acrylamide of drinking water leaving Cameron’s Hill 1 Reservoir.
Acrylamide monomer is an impurity found in polyacrylamide polymers which is used at Mt Crosby WTPs (and widely across the water industry) and is used as a flocculant aid, a filter aid and in the centrifuges to assist in the sludge dewatering process (which is returned of the head of the treatment works).
Under the operating conditions around the time of sampling the acrylamide monomer concentration in the drinking water was modelled at about 0.0001 mg/L (the ADWG limit is 0.0002 mg/L). The external laboratory analysed the sample in duplicate obtained results within measurement uncertainty at a concentration of approximately 0.0005 mg/L (0.00048, 0.00052) upon which Seqwater were verbally notified as per our notification protocols. However, prior to issuing the Certificate of Analysis (CoA) a second duplicate was taken from the same sample by the lab which returned a result of 0.00012 mg/L. This is what the lab reported on the CoA. A subsequent low-level quantification method returned a result of 0.000056 mg/L (i.e. an order of magnitude lower than those initial results that were verbally reported). Optimisation of the centrifuge operating conditions enabled the polymer dose to be reduced, decreasing the load and concentration of acrylamide monomer in the drinking water and an intensive acrylamide monomer monitoring program for a period of two weeks was undertaken. A predictive ‘Live acrylamide concentration monitoring system’ has been implemented using the SCADA system at Mt Crosby Eastbank WTP. This is a predictive modelling tool that identifies to the operator the predicted acrylamide monomer concentration in the drinking water under the current operating conditions. Enabling early operational intervention to avoid concentration above the ADWG.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
15 February 2020 – 28 February 2020. Moe Water Treatment Plant. Boil Water Notice
A significant storm event occurred in the Latrobe Valley and across the Moe township. As a result the Moe Water Treatment Plant (WTP) lost one phase of a three phase electrical supply to the plant causing, critical control point alarms (CCP) across the plant to malfunction. This resulted in a treatment process failure and out of specification high turbidity water entering the Moe supply system which posed a risk to health from micro-organisims.
Affected Areas: Hernes Oak, Moe, Moe South, Newborough, Trafalgar East, Westbury, Yallourn, Yallourn Heights and Yallourn North townships
Rectification of process control systems and additional protections implemented.
Increased reticulation monitoring and testing (Turbidity, Free chlorine, E.coli Cryptosporidium and Giardia) for the duration of the boil water alert.
Flushing and turnover of water in the storage basins and reticulation network to remove any contaminated water.
Review of risk management procedures (dirty water and boil water management plans) to incorporate learnings and operational improvements identified.
Yes
A Boil Water Advisory notice was issued to the affected communities through local media (print, radio, sms, social media and incident banner on website with up to date information for customers). The Boil Water Advisory was in place from 15 Feb 2020 to 28 Feb 2020.
Gippsland Water 2019/2020 Drinking Water Quality Report
2019/20 – Moe (Victoria) Turbidity
2019/20: Moe (Victoria) – Turbidity 10NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2018/19: Port Campbell (Victoria) Iron 0.813mg/L (max), 0.211mg/L (mean)
2022/23: Port Campbell (Victoria) Iron 0.81mg/L (max), 0.22mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2018/19: Paaratte (Victoria) Iron 0.419mg/L (max), 0.228mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Paaratte (Victoria) – Iron 0.417mg/L (max), 0.191mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
3/1/20 – 14/1/20 – Buchan (Victoria) – Boil Water Notice
During the East Gippsland bushfires, fires strongly challenged the corporation’s ability to continue supplying water safe for drinking because of the direct impact on some key assets and the unprecedented demand on the water treatment and supply systems. Despite this, supply was maintained with precautionary boil water and do not drink notices only issued where quality could not be guaranteed.
Three Section 22 notifications were issued during the bushfires. The first was issued on 31 December 2019, as a result of the need to bypass secondary chlorination and issue a Boil Water Notice for Mallacoota. The bypass was required to keep up with the unprecedented demand for water. The second was on 3 January 2020, as a result of losing secondary disinfection at Buchan, which required a Do Not Drink Tap Water Advisory Notice to be issued for the township. The third section 22 notification came on 4 January, because of the need to bypass the Omeo Water Treatment Plant and issue a Do Not Drink Tap Water Advisory Notice for the Omeo township to keep up with the extreme level of water demand.
All the notices were successfully lifted in consultation with DHHS, once actions to reinstate each of the water supply system were completed and the delivery of safe drinking water had been restored. Notices were lifted on 1st January 2020 for Mallacoota, 14th January 2020 for Buchan and 16th January 2020 for Omeo.
East Gippsland Water 2019/20 Drinking Water Quality Report
31/12/19 – 1/1/20 – Mallacoota (Victoria) – Boil Water Notice
During the East Gippsland bushfires, fires strongly challenged the corporation’s ability to continue supplying water safe for drinking because of the direct impact on some key assets and the unprecedented demand on the water treatment and supply systems. Despite this, supply was maintained with precautionary boil water and do not drink notices only issued where quality could not be guaranteed.
Three Section 22 notifications were issued during the bushfires. The first was issued on 31 December 2019, as a result of the need to bypass secondary chlorination and issue a Boil Water Notice for Mallacoota. The bypass was required to keep up with the unprecedented demand for water. The second was on 3 January 2020, as a result of losing secondary disinfection at Buchan, which required a Do Not Drink Tap Water Advisory Notice to be issued for the township. The third section 22 notification came on 4 January, because of the need to bypass the Omeo Water Treatment Plant and issue a Do Not Drink Tap Water Advisory Notice for the Omeo township to keep up with the extreme level of water demand.
All the notices were successfully lifted in consultation with DHHS, once actions to reinstate each of the water supply system were completed and the delivery of safe drinking water had been restored. Notices were lifted on 1st January 2020 for Mallacoota, 14th January 2020 for Buchan and 16th January 2020 for Omeo.
East Gippsland Water 2019/20 Drinking Water Quality Report
The incurable and ‘hive-like’ rash is spreading to towns more than 50km away
One resident said the rash was uncontrollably itchy and medication didn’t work
Doctors are at a loss, as residents report no amount of cream gets rid of it
A small town is being plagued by a mysterious and incurable ‘hive-like’ rash, and it could be spreading.
Residents of the Victorian town of Lara took to a private Facebook group last week to complain about a ‘pimply rash’ infecting at least 100 people in the area.
But new reports suggest the rash has spread beyond the confines of the town, with reports of the condition affecting residents of Bacchus Marsh and Geelong – almost 50km away.
Lara local Donna Leitch told the Geelong Advertiser her whole face has been covered in the rash since July, and doctors are at a loss.
They can’t tell me what it is, or what’s causing it – doctors just throw creams and antibiotics at you.’
Ms Leitch also said her daughter contracted the rash on her back, but that the condition cleared up on a trip to Melbourne.
It flared up again when she returned home to Lara.
More than 400 others commented on the Facebook post complaining of similar skin issues, with some describing the rash as ‘itchy and blistering’.
Some residents fear the issue could be related to the town’s water supply after many complained tap water appeared ‘murky’.
‘It always seems to flare up when I have a shower – I’ve never been so itchy in my life,’ said one Lara resident.
Others have had to request time off work, claiming the rash made them feel uncomfortable and fatigued.
One person said he has been covered in the rash for five months.
He contacted a dermatologist, but has been unable to get an appointment until 2020.
Many revealed authorities ‘laughed’ at them when they told authorities about their skin conditions.
A spokesman for the Department of Health and Human Services told Daily Mail Australia they are working with health services to better understand the issue.
‘We are satisfied that water quality standards are being met following testing conducted on the water supply by Barwon Water.’
Daily Mail Australia has contacted Barwon Water for comment, but the company previously issued a statement on Facebook.
‘Lara’s water is unquestionably safe,’ read the statement.
‘We have undertaken checks on our online instruments and routine sampling results for Lara and water quality is well within the guidelines.’
GUIDELINE
No specific guideline values are set for beta- or gamma-emitting radionuclides.
Specific beta- or gamma-emitting radionuclides should be identified and determined only
if gross beta radioactivity (after subtracting the contribution of potassium-40) exceeds 0.5 Bq/L (27.6 Bq of beta activity per gram of stable potassium).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Several radionuclides that are classified as beta-particle or gamma-ray emitters may occasionally be present in drinking water. The significant long-lived nuclides in this group are the naturally occurring isotopes potassium-40, lead-210 and radium-228, and artificial radionuclides caesium-137 and strontium-90. Tritium, another nuclide in this group, is present in the environment both from natural sources and as a result of nuclear fall-out and nuclear power generation.
Levels of strontium-90 and caesium-137 in the Australian environment have decreased substantially since atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons ceased, and these radionuclides are not detectable in drinking water. In the absence of a nuclear power industry in Australia, these nuclides are likely to be present in significant concentrations in drinking water only as a result of transient contamination following an event such as a nuclear accident.
Potassium‑40 occurs naturally in a fixed ratio to stable potassium. Potassium is an essential element for humans, and is absorbed mainly from ingested food. Potassium-40 does not accumulate in the body but is maintained at a constant level independent of intake. The average concentration of potassium in an adult male is about 2 g/kg of bodyweight, which gives an activity mass concentration of potassium-40 of 60 Bq per kg of bodyweight. The corresponding value for females is slightly less.
Lead-210, like radium-226, is a decay product of the uranium-238 series. Food is the most important route by which lead-210 enters the human body, and the annual intake depends on diet: highest concentrations are found in fish and other aquatic species. Generally, lead-210 concentrations in drinking water are considerably less than concentrations of either radium-226 or radium-228.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
Concentrations of potassium-40 in Australian drinking water supplies vary widely, from below 0.05 Bq/L in surface water sources to more that 1 Bq/L in some supplies drawn from groundwater.
There are only limited data on concentrations of other beta- or gamma-emitting radionuclides such as lead-210, strontium-90 and caesium-137 in Australian drinking water supplies. Lead-210 concentrations are probably below 0.05 Bq/L and concentrations of artificial radionuclides are negligible.
1/7/19: Cryptosporidium at a concentration of 0.05 oocysts/L was detected in a composite sample at Bendora intake tower. At the time of sampling water was being abstracted and treated at SWTP. All other water quality parameters were found to be within specification and no Cryptosporidium was detected in the raw water entering the plant or the final supply
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
2019/20 Bendora Reservoir (ACT) – Cyanobacteria
28/5/20: High risk cyanobacteria, Microcystis, was detected at notifiable levels in surface water samples at the Bendora reservoir intake tower. At the time of sampling water was being abstracted and treated at SWTP and supplied to ACT and Queanbeyan.
Jan/Feb 2020 Corin Water Supply Reservoir (ACT)
The Orroral Valley fire in January and February 2020 impacted the Namadgi National Park (comprising the southern region of the Cotter catchment including Corin and Bendora water supply reservoirs). 1,951 hectares of Corin catchment and 137 hectares of Bendora
catchment were impacted by high severity fire. A risk assessment was completed to determine the management options in February 2020 and identified that the fire had been of a high intensity and had increased risks to water quality and water treatment needs.
The Cotter catchment bushfire was followed shortly after by a high intensity rainfall event. Rainfall events following bushfires can have a significant impact on water quality, caused by increased rates of erosion, increased sediments and turbidity, and the introduction of a range of chemicals into the water supply. Rainfall following bushfires can release inorganic nutrients from burnt plant material and lead to an increase in phosphorus and other nutrients
entering waterways which can lead to future algal blooms.
To minimise impacts to the ACT and regional water supply and in response to the Cotter catchment bushfire and rainfall event, Icon Water implemented the water quality event monitoring program, installed sediment traps to reduce sediment movement in drainage lines and deployed silt curtains on Corin and Bendora reservoirs to contain ash and suspended material.
“There has been problems with water getting into the place through … some of the glass roofing.
“Now, on top of that, we’ve got this legionella issue in the water in the D-Block area as well.
He said the bacteria could have “drastic consequences” if the bacteria was transmitted to a worker or patient.
“It is a nasty flu that can move to pneumonia, and that can be deadly, particularly to vulnerable patients in a hospital setting,” he said.
“Obviously, that’s not something that we want to see.”
Mr Jacobsen said it was a positive sign that the health department was immediately responding to the positive test for the bacteria, but will provide some logistical hurdles for staff.
“You can only imagine how difficult it will be for staff, particularly where they rely on huge quantities of water, both to do their job, particularly in areas like pathology et cetera,” he said.
A spokesperson for the Royal Hobart Hospital’s Medical Staff Association said it was happy with the way the bacteria detection was being handled, adding it would cause minimal disruption to the hospital overnight.
p35 “All the volatile and semi volatile organic compounds tested in source water were reported by the NATA laboratory at values below the limit of detection with the exception of a single detection of Vinyl Chloride in the raw water above the health limit at Cobram and a single detection of diethyl thlalate detected at low levels in the raw water at Yea. Diethyl thlalate does not have a health-based limit within the ADWG. In light of the levels and subsequent downstream treatment processes, there was no risk to public health.” Goulburn Valley Water Water Quality Annual Report 2019-20
Diethyl phthalate is a colorless liquid that has a bitter, disagreeable taste. This synthetic substance is commonly used to make plastics more flexible. Products in which it is found include toothbrushes, automobile parts, tools, toys, and food packaging. Diethyl phthalate can be released fairly easily from these products, as it is not part of the chain of chemicals (polymers) that makes up the plastic. Diethyl phthalate is also used in cosmetics, insecticides, and aspirin.
p35 “All the volatile and semi volatile organic compounds tested in source water were reported by the NATA laboratory at values below the limit of detection with the exception of a single detection of Vinyl Chloride in the raw water above the health limit at Cobram and a single detection of diethyl thlalate detected at low levels in the raw water at Yea. Diethyl thlalate does not have a health-based limit within the ADWG. In light of the levels and subsequent downstream treatment processes, there was no risk to public health.” Goulburn Valley Water Water Quality Annual Report 2019-20
No safe concentration for vinyl chloride in drinking water can be confidently set. However,
for practical purposes, the concentration should be less than 0.0003 mg/L, which is the limit
of determination.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Vinyl chloride is used industrially in the production of poly vinyl chloride (PVC), which has wide
application in the plastics, rubber, paper and glass industries.
Vinyl chloride may be present in drinking water through pollution of water sources by chemical spills.
Water bottled and stored for long periods in PVC containers may contain very low concentrations of vinyl chloride. It has occasionally been detected in drinking water supplies that use PVC pipes in the United States and Germany, with a maximum reported concentration of 0.01 mg/L. In Australia there are stringent requirements on the maximum permissible residual vinyl chloride concentrations in PVC pipes and fittings.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
Vinyl chloride has not been found in Australian drinking waters. It is included here to provide guidance in the unlikely event of contamination, and because it has been detected occasionally in drinking water supplies overseas.
Cobram (Vic) – Iron
2020/21: Cobram (Vic) – Iron 1.1mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
The North West Hospital and Health Service is undertaking an urgent flushing program after routine water quality testing returned positive Legionella results in eight of its 11 facilities across the region.
North West Health Service Acting Chief Executive, Dr Karen Murphy said while the majority of tests carried out for a number of organisms were all within standards, low levels of Legionella bacteria had been detected at McKinlay, Mornington Island, Cloncurry, Julia Creek, Burketown, Normanton, Dajarra, and Mount Isa health facilities.
The detections have been made in some patient areas, including shower heads and a drinking fountain, with all sources isolated until flushed and retested. Patients have been redirected to non-affected facilities until retesting concludes.
“It is not uncommon for Legionella to be detected in our facilities’ water samples from time to time as Legionella occurs naturally and is widely distributed in the environment,” Dr Murphy said.
“We believe this positive result in some taps may have been caused by stagnating water in areas that were used less due to COVID-19.”
Although Legionella can cause the severe pneumonia known as Legionnaires’ Disease or Legionellosis, Dr Murphy said a positive detection does not automatically equate to a health risk.
“The bacteria must be inhaled in the form of water droplets to have any chance of being infectious,” she said.
“Legionellosis is a very rare infection. These results allow us to carry out water quality maintenance to ensure that the risks to our patients remain low into the future.”
Dr Murphy said immediate action had been taken.
“The water supply systems in these areas will undergo a flushing program until retesting on October 13, and affected tapware will be replaced according to standard protocols for removing the Legionella bacteria,” she said.
“The affected areas will then be retested and will not be returned to use until testing has shown the Legionella bacteria have been cleared.
“We will also increase our scheduled flushing in these areas to accommodate for periods of no use, such as the weekend.”
The North West Hospital and Health Service is undertaking an urgent flushing program after routine water quality testing returned positive Legionella results in eight of its 11 facilities across the region.
North West Health Service Acting Chief Executive, Dr Karen Murphy said while the majority of tests carried out for a number of organisms were all within standards, low levels of Legionella bacteria had been detected at McKinlay, Mornington Island, Cloncurry, Julia Creek, Burketown, Normanton, Dajarra, and Mount Isa health facilities.
The detections have been made in some patient areas, including shower heads and a drinking fountain, with all sources isolated until flushed and retested. Patients have been redirected to non-affected facilities until retesting concludes.
“It is not uncommon for Legionella to be detected in our facilities’ water samples from time to time as Legionella occurs naturally and is widely distributed in the environment,” Dr Murphy said.
“We believe this positive result in some taps may have been caused by stagnating water in areas that were used less due to COVID-19.”
Although Legionella can cause the severe pneumonia known as Legionnaires’ Disease or Legionellosis, Dr Murphy said a positive detection does not automatically equate to a health risk.
“The bacteria must be inhaled in the form of water droplets to have any chance of being infectious,” she said.
“Legionellosis is a very rare infection. These results allow us to carry out water quality maintenance to ensure that the risks to our patients remain low into the future.”
Dr Murphy said immediate action had been taken.
“The water supply systems in these areas will undergo a flushing program until retesting on October 13, and affected tapware will be replaced according to standard protocols for removing the Legionella bacteria,” she said.
“The affected areas will then be retested and will not be returned to use until testing has shown the Legionella bacteria have been cleared.
“We will also increase our scheduled flushing in these areas to accommodate for periods of no use, such as the weekend.”
The North West Hospital and Health Service is undertaking an urgent flushing program after routine water quality testing returned positive Legionella results in eight of its 11 facilities across the region.
North West Health Service Acting Chief Executive, Dr Karen Murphy said while the majority of tests carried out for a number of organisms were all within standards, low levels of Legionella bacteria had been detected at McKinlay, Mornington Island, Cloncurry, Julia Creek, Burketown, Normanton, Dajarra, and Mount Isa health facilities.
The detections have been made in some patient areas, including shower heads and a drinking fountain, with all sources isolated until flushed and retested. Patients have been redirected to non-affected facilities until retesting concludes.
“It is not uncommon for Legionella to be detected in our facilities’ water samples from time to time as Legionella occurs naturally and is widely distributed in the environment,” Dr Murphy said.
“We believe this positive result in some taps may have been caused by stagnating water in areas that were used less due to COVID-19.”
Although Legionella can cause the severe pneumonia known as Legionnaires’ Disease or Legionellosis, Dr Murphy said a positive detection does not automatically equate to a health risk.
“The bacteria must be inhaled in the form of water droplets to have any chance of being infectious,” she said.
“Legionellosis is a very rare infection. These results allow us to carry out water quality maintenance to ensure that the risks to our patients remain low into the future.”
Dr Murphy said immediate action had been taken.
“The water supply systems in these areas will undergo a flushing program until retesting on October 13, and affected tapware will be replaced according to standard protocols for removing the Legionella bacteria,” she said.
“The affected areas will then be retested and will not be returned to use until testing has shown the Legionella bacteria have been cleared.
“We will also increase our scheduled flushing in these areas to accommodate for periods of no use, such as the weekend.”
The North West Hospital and Health Service is undertaking an urgent flushing program after routine water quality testing returned positive Legionella results in eight of its 11 facilities across the region.
North West Health Service Acting Chief Executive, Dr Karen Murphy said while the majority of tests carried out for a number of organisms were all within standards, low levels of Legionella bacteria had been detected at McKinlay, Mornington Island, Cloncurry, Julia Creek, Burketown, Normanton, Dajarra, and Mount Isa health facilities.
The detections have been made in some patient areas, including shower heads and a drinking fountain, with all sources isolated until flushed and retested. Patients have been redirected to non-affected facilities until retesting concludes.
“It is not uncommon for Legionella to be detected in our facilities’ water samples from time to time as Legionella occurs naturally and is widely distributed in the environment,” Dr Murphy said.
“We believe this positive result in some taps may have been caused by stagnating water in areas that were used less due to COVID-19.”
Although Legionella can cause the severe pneumonia known as Legionnaires’ Disease or Legionellosis, Dr Murphy said a positive detection does not automatically equate to a health risk.
“The bacteria must be inhaled in the form of water droplets to have any chance of being infectious,” she said.
“Legionellosis is a very rare infection. These results allow us to carry out water quality maintenance to ensure that the risks to our patients remain low into the future.”
Dr Murphy said immediate action had been taken.
“The water supply systems in these areas will undergo a flushing program until retesting on October 13, and affected tapware will be replaced according to standard protocols for removing the Legionella bacteria,” she said.
“The affected areas will then be retested and will not be returned to use until testing has shown the Legionella bacteria have been cleared.
“We will also increase our scheduled flushing in these areas to accommodate for periods of no use, such as the weekend.”
The North West Hospital and Health Service is undertaking an urgent flushing program after routine water quality testing returned positive Legionella results in eight of its 11 facilities across the region.
North West Health Service Acting Chief Executive, Dr Karen Murphy said while the majority of tests carried out for a number of organisms were all within standards, low levels of Legionella bacteria had been detected at McKinlay, Mornington Island, Cloncurry, Julia Creek, Burketown, Normanton, Dajarra, and Mount Isa health facilities.
The detections have been made in some patient areas, including shower heads and a drinking fountain, with all sources isolated until flushed and retested. Patients have been redirected to non-affected facilities until retesting concludes.
“It is not uncommon for Legionella to be detected in our facilities’ water samples from time to time as Legionella occurs naturally and is widely distributed in the environment,” Dr Murphy said.
“We believe this positive result in some taps may have been caused by stagnating water in areas that were used less due to COVID-19.”
Although Legionella can cause the severe pneumonia known as Legionnaires’ Disease or Legionellosis, Dr Murphy said a positive detection does not automatically equate to a health risk.
“The bacteria must be inhaled in the form of water droplets to have any chance of being infectious,” she said.
“Legionellosis is a very rare infection. These results allow us to carry out water quality maintenance to ensure that the risks to our patients remain low into the future.”
Dr Murphy said immediate action had been taken.
“The water supply systems in these areas will undergo a flushing program until retesting on October 13, and affected tapware will be replaced according to standard protocols for removing the Legionella bacteria,” she said.
“The affected areas will then be retested and will not be returned to use until testing has shown the Legionella bacteria have been cleared.
“We will also increase our scheduled flushing in these areas to accommodate for periods of no use, such as the weekend.”
The North West Hospital and Health Service is undertaking an urgent flushing program after routine water quality testing returned positive Legionella results in eight of its 11 facilities across the region.
North West Health Service Acting Chief Executive, Dr Karen Murphy said while the majority of tests carried out for a number of organisms were all within standards, low levels of Legionella bacteria had been detected at McKinlay, Mornington Island, Cloncurry, Julia Creek, Burketown, Normanton, Dajarra, and Mount Isa health facilities.
The detections have been made in some patient areas, including shower heads and a drinking fountain, with all sources isolated until flushed and retested. Patients have been redirected to non-affected facilities until retesting concludes.
“It is not uncommon for Legionella to be detected in our facilities’ water samples from time to time as Legionella occurs naturally and is widely distributed in the environment,” Dr Murphy said.
“We believe this positive result in some taps may have been caused by stagnating water in areas that were used less due to COVID-19.”
Although Legionella can cause the severe pneumonia known as Legionnaires’ Disease or Legionellosis, Dr Murphy said a positive detection does not automatically equate to a health risk.
“The bacteria must be inhaled in the form of water droplets to have any chance of being infectious,” she said.
“Legionellosis is a very rare infection. These results allow us to carry out water quality maintenance to ensure that the risks to our patients remain low into the future.”
Dr Murphy said immediate action had been taken.
“The water supply systems in these areas will undergo a flushing program until retesting on October 13, and affected tapware will be replaced according to standard protocols for removing the Legionella bacteria,” she said.
“The affected areas will then be retested and will not be returned to use until testing has shown the Legionella bacteria have been cleared.
“We will also increase our scheduled flushing in these areas to accommodate for periods of no use, such as the weekend.”
The North West Hospital and Health Service is undertaking an urgent flushing program after routine water quality testing returned positive Legionella results in eight of its 11 facilities across the region.
North West Health Service Acting Chief Executive, Dr Karen Murphy said while the majority of tests carried out for a number of organisms were all within standards, low levels of Legionella bacteria had been detected at McKinlay, Mornington Island, Cloncurry, Julia Creek, Burketown, Normanton, Dajarra, and Mount Isa health facilities.
The detections have been made in some patient areas, including shower heads and a drinking fountain, with all sources isolated until flushed and retested. Patients have been redirected to non-affected facilities until retesting concludes.
“It is not uncommon for Legionella to be detected in our facilities’ water samples from time to time as Legionella occurs naturally and is widely distributed in the environment,” Dr Murphy said.
“We believe this positive result in some taps may have been caused by stagnating water in areas that were used less due to COVID-19.”
Although Legionella can cause the severe pneumonia known as Legionnaires’ Disease or Legionellosis, Dr Murphy said a positive detection does not automatically equate to a health risk.
“The bacteria must be inhaled in the form of water droplets to have any chance of being infectious,” she said.
“Legionellosis is a very rare infection. These results allow us to carry out water quality maintenance to ensure that the risks to our patients remain low into the future.”
Dr Murphy said immediate action had been taken.
“The water supply systems in these areas will undergo a flushing program until retesting on October 13, and affected tapware will be replaced according to standard protocols for removing the Legionella bacteria,” she said.
“The affected areas will then be retested and will not be returned to use until testing has shown the Legionella bacteria have been cleared.
“We will also increase our scheduled flushing in these areas to accommodate for periods of no use, such as the weekend.”
Ms O’Keefe – who has spent most of her life in Doomadgee – said she shared her concerns on Facebook because she felt that remote communities were being overlooked.
“This wouldn’t be acceptable in the city at all,” she said. “This is 2018 and stuff like this shouldn’t even happen.”
Home to around 2000 people, Doomadgee is the second remote Indigenous community in Queensland to express concerns over water quality in recent weeks, after Palm Island residents reported similar issues in November.
Both communities have naturally high levels of iron and manganese in the raw water supply.
Garry Jeffries, Acting CEO of Doomadgee Aboriginal Shire Council, said daily testing showed the water was still safe to drink.
“It’s not dirty water – it’s discoloured,” he told NITV News. “The authorities tell us that while it’s not aesthetically very pleasing, it’s not a health risk and we do what we can to control it.”
Mr Jeffries said the council manually treats the raw water supply with three chemicals.
However, any residual chemicals can have a delayed reaction with any residual iron and manganese, which may cause discolouration. He said the issue was harder to manage during the summer months.
“In the last, probably, four weeks we’ve been having extreme temperatures and our water usage has gone up quite dramatically… so the incidence may have been a little bit higher than normal,” he said.
“On top of that, this time of the year – while our raw water storage has never run dry, the levels get low, which means the concentration of the iron and manganese levels is higher than normal, so it creates more effort for us to flush to try and alleviate it.”
Mr Jeffries said the council had received State Government funding to automate the chemical mixing and dosing process, which he hopes will provide a long-term fix by early 2019.
Potable versus palatable
It’s not uncommon for remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities to have issues with water contamination, says Nina Hall, a researcher at the University of Queensland School of Public Health.
“Not everybody is able to access clean, safe drinking water across Australia, even though it’s 2018 and we’re a wealthy country,” she told NITV News.
“And the places where you’re not assured of a safe glass of water that won’t make you sick short term or long term, tend to be remote areas, and often are remote Indigenous communities.”
Ms Hall said there are generally four reasons water can be unsafe: naturally-occurring chemicals, synthetic chemicals used in agriculture, chemicals such as PFAS used by the defence force and sewerage contamination.
She said there’s a difference between water being potable – safe to drink- and palatable.
So you could have a council saying ‘it’s safe to drink, we’ve done the monitoring, it’s all under the guidelines,'” she said.
“However, it might smell funny, it might be a funny colour, it might tingle on your tongue, in the shower soap won’t lather and you don’t feel clean. So we have to remember why people would drink water, and it’s not just that we feel safe because it’s going to be healthy, we actually have to want to drink that water.
“And that opens up other conversations – if the water is smelling funny and looking funny, will you be reaching for water when you’re thirsty, or will you be looking for other choices? And then we start talking about nutrition with high consumption of soft drinks.”
Ms Hall said there were solutions available, from water filters to chemical and physical treatments: “This is not rocket science. There are answers pretty much to all problems around water contamination and lack of palatability.”
But she argued local councils – particularly small Indigenous councils in Queensland – were often unequipped to deal with water issues.
“They don’t necessarily have the right funding, they don’t have long-term funding,” Ms Hall said.
“They’re very small so they have very few water operators. The water operators can’t take leave easily to go and get further training in the cities. So you have what I would call ‘governance issues’ around managing it.”
COOBER PEDY TAP WATER IDEAL FOR SWIMMING – CHLORINE OVER THE TOP SAY RESIDENTS
Jan 19 2018 (Coober Pedy Times)
Coober Pedy residents complaining of both stagnant-smelling and over-chlorinated tap water since the weekend of 6/7 January 2017 have taken to testing their own water before letting their children near it or using it themselves, and alternatively buying commercial drinking water from a number of the town’s retail outlets.People have complained of sore eyes, skin rashes, a strange cough and even chest pains, coinciding with the strong smell of chlorine coming out of the taps at Coober Pedy on alternate days for nearly three weeks now. With South Australia in the grip of a serious heat wave Coober Pedy parents have becoming more vocal.
Amongst the countless complaints, one mother said: “My son was playing in water today and said his eyes were stinging. That’s from tap water… seriously something isn’t right.”
Another mother messaged the Coober Pedy Regional Times on Thursday night saying: “Midnight, I was off to bed, thought about having some water, had to spit it out, smelt and tasted like pool water. No we are not imagining things… so upsetting!!! I don’t know who to contact and complain…”
Since the weekend of the 6 & 7 January local residents believe that batches of possibly untreated bore water have been pumped through the town water pipes, then later in the day another batch that is heavily chlorinated. Residents say there has been no notification that the water pipes were being flushed due to a contamination. In fact, the exact opposite.
To date council has vigorously defended any suggestions of poor management of the town’s water supply and claims to have high standard, independent water results, that to date, they have declined to publish. Instead suggesting that residents should all go into the council office and see them. In this heat most of the community would consider that to be a backhanded invitation!
Residents would prefer to have dedicated oversight from SA Water for safety reasons during this difficult period where it is now believed that staff numbers have been reduced to one or possibly two to run both the Desalination Plant and the Sewerage Treatment Plant
Owner operator of a local tour company tested his tap water on Thursday and found the levels of chlorine to be above average for a regular swimming pool. Resident said, “We did a reading today when the water started smelling and it registered at 2.0 -5.0 ppm. The average across Australia seems to be 0.5-1.5 ppm”
“We also did a “Control” experiment with bottled water to show our tests weren’t incorrect. The bottled water tests returned clear ie no chlorine.”
Local resident and father of three small children under 5 years old Jason Wright sent his chlorine test results into the Coober Pedy Regional Times on Thursday saying, “If anyone tries to tell you there is low chlorine in our drinking water then show them this. Testing 2.2ppm. That was today [Thursday] at approximately 5pm. Ideal for a swimming pool. How many people do you know that get a glass of water from their pool when they’re thirsty? I suspect it would have tested higher yesterday [Wednesday] when it stunk.”
Another resident who tested tap water in Hutchison Street also on Thursday said, “For swimming pools the ideal range is 1 – 1.5. As you can see the reading is above 5”.
A new Facebook group has appeared this week called Coober Pedy’s Water Supply. People have been invited to join. In one day they have accumulated over 120 members.
People say they are contacting Local Member for Giles, Eddie Hughes MP to register their fears and concerns with Coober Pedy’s current water quality.
Local member Eddie Hughes said he contacted the Ministers office last week to discuss Coober Pedy’s water supply issue and he has also spoken to the council and to Acting Water Supply Manager Colin Pitman.
“I have been provided with independent water testing results from an accredited organisation.”
“At the time of testing the water samples met all of the necessary standards.”
“Subsequent to that over the last couple of days a number of people have contacted me to voice concerns about the water.”
“It is interesting to note that one of those persons had initially said the water was fine and then the following day contacted me and expressed concerns at the apparent level of chlorination.”
“I will continue to speak with the council and the water supply facility and I will also contact once again the relevant minister’s office.”
“It’s important that the residents in Coober Pedy have confidence in their water supply.”
“I have spoken to council and they have indicated in this financial year there is going to be significant investment in the water supply facility in order to address maintenance and refurbishment.”
“I will work with all elements of the Coober Pedy community to ensure that we get an outcome that satisfies everyone,” concluded Mr. Hughes.
On Christmas Day 25-12-2017 The Coober Pedy Regional Times published news of the resignations of the entire Water Supply Department with fears already mounting for the future quality of an essential service for a town in the desert.
The word on the street at the time alluded to workplace bullying and oppression followed by despondent workers. Another reason rumoured for the resignations was the workers growing lack of confidence in the council’s ability to manage the town and its services.
The key points in dispute that triggered the industrial strike of a few weeks before are as follows:
Attempts by management to strip terms and conditions from the Enterprise Agreement and split the workforce onto two separate Agreements;
Attempts by managements to make drastic changes to Council policies to the detriment of the workforce;
A culture of bullying perpetrated by management;
The removal of vehicles from on-call operators;
Management’s decision to hire more management employees but refuse to fill vacant positions of workers who have left the Council, purportedly on the basis that the Council does not have enough funds.
27 December 2017 the current council CEO Ms Fiona Hogan defended the competency of council to manage the town’s water supply saying, “The council would like to advise that the council retains highly skilled and qualified staff who will continue to run both the potable drinking water system and the Waste water treatment plant to produce high quality drinking water and professionally treated waste water.
“These staff are highly skilled in water management and are retained by the council from within the existing staff contingent.”
“The council has also sourced skills from within the community to assist in the pipe network security and have retained in house and independent highly skilled advisors on the management of Reverse osmosis and Waste water treatment systems to assist with the treatment plant operation.”
2nd January after continuing complaints about the inconsistent water quality, the CEO Ms Hogan had another stab at pacifying the community, pretty much implying that the community were imagining the smell of chlorine. Hogan says, “The quality of the water will continue to meet the highest of standards and the community can be assured with the sophisticated management systems proposed that quality control will continue to be the best in the state exceeding SA Water metropolitan standards but with a more fail safe less manual system.
By Wednesday 10 January it seemed fairly clear to those with good sensory faculties that we had potentially stagnant water coming out of our taps. On this day, the water smelled putrid and a local resident tested the chlorine levels with a pool testing kit and said that ZERO chlorine registered that morning! Later in the same day the tap water smelled strongly of chlorine.
Currently the stench of chlorine in most sections of town is still the dominant factor. According to residents own test results the drinking water contains more chlorine than a regular swimming pool needs.
The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines require that the level of chlorine in drinking water should not exceed 5 milligrams per litre (5 parts per million). This would be the exception rather than the rule and undoubtedly exists to protect instances of negligence or accident. Nobody would knowingly subject themselves or their children to those levels of chlorine on a regular basis especially in drinking water!
Residents of Coober Pedy say they will continue to purchase water from a trusted source until such time as the quality of water improves to the previous high standard.
AT A FEW MINUTES TO 5pm Friday 19-1-2018, the Council’s reason for heavily chlorinated water arrived online at Facebook. There was no comment or an apology for the water that smelt stagnant.
“Water Update: We now advise chlorine levels have returned to a normal level in a result of the bacteria levels being bought back to zero.”
LAST BUT NOT LEAST is the word from a resident or client who says, “I wish Council had advised us that chlorine levels were not normal before telling us that they are back to normal.
One wonders if they can do the correct dosing.
Surely previous water teams have encountered bacterial events but we have never had heavily chlorinated water…”
TASWATER will commence large-scale flushing of water mains but is yet to find a common cause for the taste and odour issues that have sparked a raft of complaints by Mercury readers.
TasWater CEO Mike Brewster said initial investigations had been carried out within raw water sources, treatment plants and the reticulation system.
“In addition to our regular sampling regime, we have been testing water in the systems where complaints have been raised. We have conducted 319 tests in the last five weeks and results are within Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, which means the water is safe to drink,” Mr Brewster said.
“One of the biggest challenges has been that there is no definitive scientific test for taste and odour in water, and we have been investigating more than 2500km of pipeline across affected areas.
“We can confirm that all calls are investigated and we have been responding to these complaints through localised flushing.
“What this investigation has found is that while localised flushing is helpful, it is not enough. Our crews will now move to larger zonal flushing of water mains.”
Mr Brewster said since early January, the TasWater call centre had received about 236 reports, the majority in the past two weeks and from different parts of Hobart.
General Manager of Works Delivery Dr Dharma Dharmabalan said that as the cause was not obvious, TasWater was considering a range of probable causes.
“We are undertaking investigations to determine if changing water flows, maintenance regimes, seasonal changes and water sources are causing the taste and odour,” Dr Dharmabalan said.
“By mapping all of these activities within the system we anticipate being able to identify the localised causes of the taste and odour issues.”
Fed-up customers dish the ‘dirt’
CLAREMONT mother-of-three Juanita Applebee says she cannot drink the water from her tap because it tastes like “dirt” as TasWater continues its investigation into taste and odour problems reported by customers in the Hobart area.
Mrs Applebee’s comments were part of a barrage of more than 100 complaints about Hobart water quality to the Mercury Facebook page yesterday.
She said the water looks clear but has tasted “awful” for the past two weeks.
“I always drink Tasmanian water out of a tap, never bottled water,’’ she said.
“I can’t drink this.”
Mercury readers were not holding back online yesterday.
Emma Wilson, of Bridgewater, says her water “tastes mouldy and has done for months”.
“I sometimes find larvae floating in it. Disgusting. Have complained already, they weren’t interested. Not impressed,” Ms Wilson said.
Chief executive Mike Brewster said yesterday an investigation was being conducted over a large area and thousands of kilometres of pipeline as teams worked to find the problem’s source or sources.
Mr Brewster said 40 water samples from effected properties were tested for e coli and all were found to be safe and complying with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“Water mains are also being flushed out and scoured in the areas where reports of taste and odour are reported and further sampling taking place where required,” he said.
Customers can contact TasWater on 136 992 to report any issues they have with their water connection.
8/10/19: Routine sample (8/10/2019) taken from GOSTE112 (Supply- operational) detected 1 MPN/100mL E. coli. Department of Health (DoH) was immediately notified. The system was
flushed, and subsequent samples were clear of E. coli. System flushed with clean
water Subsequent samples clear of E.coli The original detection was
reclassified as E.vulneris#
#E.vulneris: This bacterium can colonize in the respiratory tract, genital tract, stool, and urinary tract. However, P. vulneris is most often associated with wounds and has been known to colonize open wounds of both humans and animals. This association gave the bacterium its species name, vulneris, which is Latin for wound.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Fed-up Tasmanian residents dish the ‘dirt’ on poor water quality as TasWater investigates cause
TASWATER will commence large-scale flushing of water mains but is yet to find a common cause for the taste and odour issues that have sparked a raft of complaints by Mercury readers.
TasWater CEO Mike Brewster said initial investigations had been carried out within raw water sources, treatment plants and the reticulation system.
“In addition to our regular sampling regime, we have been testing water in the systems where complaints have been raised. We have conducted 319 tests in the last five weeks and results are within Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, which means the water is safe to drink,” Mr Brewster said.
“One of the biggest challenges has been that there is no definitive scientific test for taste and odour in water, and we have been investigating more than 2500km of pipeline across affected areas.
“We can confirm that all calls are investigated and we have been responding to these complaints through localised flushing.
“What this investigation has found is that while localised flushing is helpful, it is not enough. Our crews will now move to larger zonal flushing of water mains.”
Mr Brewster said since early January, the TasWater call centre had received about 236 reports, the majority in the past two weeks and from different parts of Hobart.
General Manager of Works Delivery Dr Dharma Dharmabalan said that as the cause was not obvious, TasWater was considering a range of probable causes.
“We are undertaking investigations to determine if changing water flows, maintenance regimes, seasonal changes and water sources are causing the taste and odour,” Dr Dharmabalan said.
“By mapping all of these activities within the system we anticipate being able to identify the localised causes of the taste and odour issues.”
Fed-up customers dish the ‘dirt’
CLAREMONT mother-of-three Juanita Applebee says she cannot drink the water from her tap because it tastes like “dirt” as TasWater continues its investigation into taste and odour problems reported by customers in the Hobart area.
Mrs Applebee’s comments were part of a barrage of more than 100 complaints about Hobart water quality to the Mercury Facebook page yesterday.
She said the water looks clear but has tasted “awful” for the past two weeks.
“I always drink Tasmanian water out of a tap, never bottled water,’’ she said.
“I can’t drink this.”
Mercury readers were not holding back online yesterday.
Emma Wilson, of Bridgewater, says her water “tastes mouldy and has done for months”.
“I sometimes find larvae floating in it. Disgusting. Have complained already, they weren’t interested. Not impressed,” Ms Wilson said.
Chief executive Mike Brewster said yesterday an investigation was being conducted over a large area and thousands of kilometres of pipeline as teams worked to find the problem’s source or sources.
Mr Brewster said 40 water samples from effected properties were tested for e coli and all were found to be safe and complying with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“Water mains are also being flushed out and scoured in the areas where reports of taste and odour are reported and further sampling taking place where required,” he said.
Customers can contact TasWater on 136 992 to report any issues they have with their water connection.
Cyanobacterial Bloom Management Current and Future
Options Abstracts from the meeting held 12 & 13 August, 2009, Parramatta, NSW
The Victorian response to the 2009 Murray River algal bloom
Victorian water managers are required by the government to monitor their storages for blue green algae (BGA) and prepare incident response plans to enact when algae levels reach certain (human health) triggers. Goulburn-Murray Water (G-MW) has also been nominated to coordinate BGA preparedness and response across the G-MW region of northern Victoria.
The Murray Region Algal Coordinating Committee (MRACC) is the cross-border body that prepares for and coordinates response to algal blooms along the Murray River, from the headwaters to the confluence with the Murrumbidgee River. The MRACC members include representatives from G-MW, MDBA, and water, health and local government agencies from both NSW and Victoria. The Sunraysia RACC performs a similar role from the Murrumbidgee confluence to the South Australia border.
In early March 2009 Lake Hume developed high levels of BGA, leading to public health warnings to avoid contact with the raw water. A week later high BGA levels were confirmed in Lake Mulwala (Yarrawonga Weir) and a public alert was issued by G-MW on 13 March 2009. In the following weeks high BGA levels were also detected in the Murray River between Lake Hume and Torrumbarry Weir and later downstream as far as Robinvale (Euston Weir). The initial alert for the Murray River was issued on 26 March 2009 after a teleconference of key MRACC members including GMW.
The alert was extended to Tooleybuc, downstream of Swan Hill, on 6 April 2009. Blue green algae levels started to decline in late April 2009 and by 15 May 2009 had all fallen below high alert. The MRACC convened via teleconference and the response included monitoring plans, media communication, signage, town supplies, aerial surveillance and toxin testing.
G-MW coordinated the Victorian response. This included contacting local councils and Parks Victoria to advise them of the need for signage at recreational areas and liaison with urban water authorities.
The main method of communicating with the public was media releases and subsequent media interviews combined with signage advising against contact with and use of the water. Media releases were issued weekly. Information was also available via websites and telephone information services in both states. No reports of adverse health effects due to the bloom have been received despite the continued use of the river and lakes by many people. The three main species of blue green algae detected can be toxic through contact (skin irritation) and ingestion.
Cyanobacterial Bloom Management Current and Future
Options Abstracts from the meeting held 12 & 13 August, 2009, Parramatta, NSW
The Victorian response to the 2009 Murray River algal bloom
Victorian water managers are required by the government to monitor their storages for blue green algae (BGA) and prepare incident response plans to enact when algae levels reach certain (human health) triggers. Goulburn-Murray Water (G-MW) has also been nominated to coordinate BGA preparedness and response across the G-MW region of northern Victoria.
The Murray Region Algal Coordinating Committee (MRACC) is the cross-border body that prepares for and coordinates response to algal blooms along the Murray River, from the headwaters to the confluence with the Murrumbidgee River. The MRACC members include representatives from G-MW, MDBA, and water, health and local government agencies from both NSW and Victoria. The Sunraysia RACC performs a similar role from the Murrumbidgee confluence to the South Australia border.
In early March 2009 Lake Hume developed high levels of BGA, leading to public health warnings to avoid contact with the raw water. A week later high BGA levels were confirmed in Lake Mulwala (Yarrawonga Weir) and a public alert was issued by G-MW on 13 March 2009. In the following weeks high BGA levels were also detected in the Murray River between Lake Hume and Torrumbarry Weir and later downstream as far as Robinvale (Euston Weir). The initial alert for the Murray River was issued on 26 March 2009 after a teleconference of key MRACC members including GMW.
The alert was extended to Tooleybuc, downstream of Swan Hill, on 6 April 2009. Blue green algae levels started to decline in late April 2009 and by 15 May 2009 had all fallen below high alert. The MRACC convened via teleconference and the response included monitoring plans, media communication, signage, town supplies, aerial surveillance and toxin testing.
G-MW coordinated the Victorian response. This included contacting local councils and Parks Victoria to advise them of the need for signage at recreational areas and liaison with urban water authorities.
The main method of communicating with the public was media releases and subsequent media interviews combined with signage advising against contact with and use of the water. Media releases were issued weekly. Information was also available via websites and telephone information services in both states. No reports of adverse health effects due to the bloom have been received despite the continued use of the river and lakes by many people. The three main species of blue green algae detected can be toxic through contact (skin irritation) and ingestion.
Cyanobacterial Bloom Management Current and Future
Options Abstracts from the meeting held 12 & 13 August, 2009, Parramatta, NSW
The Victorian response to the 2009 Murray River algal bloom
Victorian water managers are required by the government to monitor their storages for blue green algae (BGA) and prepare incident response plans to enact when algae levels reach certain (human health) triggers. Goulburn-Murray Water (G-MW) has also been nominated to coordinate BGA preparedness and response across the G-MW region of northern Victoria.
The Murray Region Algal Coordinating Committee (MRACC) is the cross-border body that prepares for and coordinates response to algal blooms along the Murray River, from the headwaters to the confluence with the Murrumbidgee River. The MRACC members include representatives from G-MW, MDBA, and water, health and local government agencies from both NSW and Victoria. The Sunraysia RACC performs a similar role from the Murrumbidgee confluence to the South Australia border.
In early March 2009 Lake Hume developed high levels of BGA, leading to public health warnings to avoid contact with the raw water. A week later high BGA levels were confirmed in Lake Mulwala (Yarrawonga Weir) and a public alert was issued by G-MW on 13 March 2009. In the following weeks high BGA levels were also detected in the Murray River between Lake Hume and Torrumbarry Weir and later downstream as far as Robinvale (Euston Weir). The initial alert for the Murray River was issued on 26 March 2009 after a teleconference of key MRACC members including GMW.
The alert was extended to Tooleybuc, downstream of Swan Hill, on 6 April 2009. Blue green algae levels started to decline in late April 2009 and by 15 May 2009 had all fallen below high alert. The MRACC convened via teleconference and the response included monitoring plans, media communication, signage, town supplies, aerial surveillance and toxin testing.
G-MW coordinated the Victorian response. This included contacting local councils and Parks Victoria to advise them of the need for signage at recreational areas and liaison with urban water authorities.
The main method of communicating with the public was media releases and subsequent media interviews combined with signage advising against contact with and use of the water. Media releases were issued weekly. Information was also available via websites and telephone information services in both states. No reports of adverse health effects due to the bloom have been received despite the continued use of the river and lakes by many people. The three main species of blue green algae detected can be toxic through contact (skin irritation) and ingestion.
Cyanobacterial Bloom Management Current and Future
Options Abstracts from the meeting held 12 & 13 August, 2009, Parramatta, NSW
The Victorian response to the 2009 Murray River algal bloom
Victorian water managers are required by the government to monitor their storages for blue green algae (BGA) and prepare incident response plans to enact when algae levels reach certain (human health) triggers. Goulburn-Murray Water (G-MW) has also been nominated to coordinate BGA preparedness and response across the G-MW region of northern Victoria.
The Murray Region Algal Coordinating Committee (MRACC) is the cross-border body that prepares for and coordinates response to algal blooms along the Murray River, from the headwaters to the confluence with the Murrumbidgee River. The MRACC members include representatives from G-MW, MDBA, and water, health and local government agencies from both NSW and Victoria. The Sunraysia RACC performs a similar role from the Murrumbidgee confluence to the South Australia border.
In early March 2009 Lake Hume developed high levels of BGA, leading to public health warnings to avoid contact with the raw water. A week later high BGA levels were confirmed in Lake Mulwala (Yarrawonga Weir) and a public alert was issued by G-MW on 13 March 2009. In the following weeks high BGA levels were also detected in the Murray River between Lake Hume and Torrumbarry Weir and later downstream as far as Robinvale (Euston Weir). The initial alert for the Murray River was issued on 26 March 2009 after a teleconference of key MRACC members including GMW.
The alert was extended to Tooleybuc, downstream of Swan Hill, on 6 April 2009. Blue green algae levels started to decline in late April 2009 and by 15 May 2009 had all fallen below high alert. The MRACC convened via teleconference and the response included monitoring plans, media communication, signage, town supplies, aerial surveillance and toxin testing.
G-MW coordinated the Victorian response. This included contacting local councils and Parks Victoria to advise them of the need for signage at recreational areas and liaison with urban water authorities.
The main method of communicating with the public was media releases and subsequent media interviews combined with signage advising against contact with and use of the water. Media releases were issued weekly. Information was also available via websites and telephone information services in both states. No reports of adverse health effects due to the bloom have been received despite the continued use of the river and lakes by many people. The three main species of blue green algae detected can be toxic through contact (skin irritation) and ingestion.
Almost five months after the Tasmanian Government announced it would take possession of the newly built K-Block building at the Royal Hobart Hospital, the facility still does not have drinkable water running through many of its taps.
Staff have been forced to cart bottled water around the 10-storey building, and the Health and Community Services Union is questioning when the problem will be solved.
Union state secretary Tim Jacobson said the situation was unacceptable, and that staff had still not been told when drinking water was expected to flow freely.
“It’s meant that, in pretty well every case now, to get drinking water to the wards it has to be moved around in containers so that patients, staff and visitors have drinkable water,” Mr Jacobson said.
“There have been issues raised in relation to safety, but it’s an additional task that people are now being asked to perform on top of obviously the massive workloads that they’ve got right now.
“Staff are of the view that this is likely to go on forever, and the hospital needs to put in place better systems and processes to ensure that staff and patients and visitors have access to drinking water on a regular basis, and that isn’t something on top of the already-burdensome workload staff are being asked to perform.”
The State Government took possession of K-Block in March to ensure it would be operational in light of the coronavirus pandemic.
The Government was aware of lead contamination in the water supply at the time, saying flushing and testing of the water system would continue during operational commissioning, with alternative drinking water supplied to operational commissioning staff and contractors until then.
‘Hospital not fit for purpose’
At the end of last month, the Mental Health Inpatient Unit moved into K-Block, which the Government said marked the occupation of all 10 floors.
Labor health spokeswoman Sarah Lovell said the water issues raised questions over safety, as well as who would pay to fix them.
“It’s very concerning that they’ve taken over a hospital that is not fit for purpose,” she said.
“If the drinking water is not up to standard, they can’t argue that the drinking water is fit for purpose.”
Health Minister Sarah Courtney said a defect list was still being worked through with the managing contractor.
“Much of the drinking water issues have been resolved, however where drinking water is still undergoing testing, there is clear signage on those taps and we’re also ensuring we have bottled water available,” she said.
“It’s my very clear expectation that we make sure we have safe water for our staff and our patients.”
Not the end of the issues
K-Block has also faced water issues of a different kind.
The reception area has been leaking after incidents of heavy rainfall, including after last week’s heavy downpours.
“It has to be an embarrassment to the Government and to the hospital that the new front entrance has buckets and towels down soaking up a significant amount of water when we get a deluge like we’ve had over the past week or so,” Mr Jacobson said.
Ms Courtney said the reception area leak was also on the defect list.
“My expectation is it will be fixed as quickly as possible,” she said.
Australian Nursing and Midwifery Federation branch secretary Emily Shepherd said there were also communication issues in K-Block.
“There are mobile blackspot issues in some areas, we understand that a permanent fix is being worked on,” she said.
The Government said the builder was responsible for fixing any issues in a timely manner and at its own expense.
Lead found in water supply at new Royal Hobart ward
The water supply at a new building at the Royal Hobart Hospital (RHH) has lead contamination, with construction workers drinking from it, a union says — but the Tasmanian Government will only confirm testing has returned “unsatisfactory results” and it still expects the facility will open by end of this month.
The much-anticipated opening of K-Block — as part of the $689-million redevelopment of RHH — is seen as key to helping ease capacity pressures at the hospital.
Michael Anderson from the Communications, Electrical and Plumbing Union said he had heard the company managing the project, John Holland Fairbrother Joint Venture, was having trouble commissioning the building’s water supply.
He said the union decided to investigate by undertaking some testing of its own; and of the two samples tested, one returned a positive result for lead.
Ben Moloney, the RHH redevelopment project director, said samples at the facility had returned with “unsatisfactory results”.
“Flushing of plumbing is a standard requirement for major new buildings. This is essential because new plumbing fittings must be flushed to remove trace heavy metal materials,” he said.
But Mr Anderson said the union was concerned.
“There was no direction or signage on site to say do not drink this water,” he said.
In a statement, a spokesperson for John Holland Fairbrother Joint Venture said it was committed to the safety of people on the site.
It said independent water sampling routinely taken had returned results “within the Australian drinking water guidelines”.
Premier Peter Gutwein said the Government would not open K-Block until it was satisfied with the building — but that he still expected it to be in use by the end of this month.
He said recruitment was underway to ensure the extra 44 beds could be properly staffed.
“We have been setting Australian records in terms of the amount of staff we have been recruiting into our hospital system,” he said.
“We are well above the national average in terms of staff per thousand in the key and critical areas.”
In a statement, Health Minister Sarah Courtney said the Government was “now in the very final stages, but ensuring it is safe, fit-for-purpose and compliant is a responsibility we do not take lightly”.
“Throughout the build, the project team has routinely taken expert advice to ensure the Government’s rights under the contract have been protected on behalf of taxpayers and we make no apologies for doing so.
“The project team is currently assessing that request and taking expert advice regarding remaining building and contractual matters, including the final flushing and treatment of the water supply in line with standard hospital building commissioning practice.”
Ms Courtney said the Government was “working towards the commissioning of patient services as soon as possible”.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
31/7/19 Wirrina Cove Bromoform (Trihalomethane) 243ug/L. (2019/20 av. 193ug/L)
Wirrina Cove (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Since bromodichloromethane was listed in the Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens, additional studies in rats have been identified. Administration of bromodichloromethane in the drinking water increased the combined incidence of benign and malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma) in males (George et al. 2002) and caused benign liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma) in females (Tumasonis et al. 1987).
Cancer Studies in Humans
The data available from epidemiological studies are inadequate to evaluate the relationship between human cancer and exposure specifically to bromodichloromethane. Several epidemiological studies indicated a possible association between ingestion of chlorinated drinking water (which typically contains bromodichloromethane) and increased risk of
cancer in humans, but these studies could not provide information on whether any observed effects were due to bromodichloromethane or to one or more of the hundreds of other disinfection by-products also present in chlorinated water (ATSDR 1989).” (1)
Wirrina Cove (South Australia) – Dibromochloromethane
20/4/20: Wirrina Cove Dibromochloromethane (Trihalomethane) 153ug/L (max). 2019/20 av. 103ug/L
WHO Guideline level Dibromochloromethane: 100ug/L (Australian Guideline for Dibromochloromethane is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
WHO Bromoform Guideline 100ug/L. Bromoform is a Trihalomethane, which combined with Dibromochloromethane, Bromodichloromethane and Chloroform amount to Total Trihalomethanes. Trihalomethanes (combined) have an Australian Guideline of 250ug/L
Natural production of bromoform by phytoplankton and seaweeds in the ocean is thought to be its predominant source in the environment.[5] However, locally significant amounts of bromoform enter the environment formed as disinfection byproducts known as trihalomethanes when chlorine is added to drinking water to kill bacteria. It is somewhat soluble in water and readily evaporates into the air. Bromoform is the main trihalomethane produced in beachfront salt water swimming pools with concentrations as high as 1.2 ppm (parts per million). Concentrations in freshwater pools are 1000 times lower.[6] Occupational skin exposure limits are set at 0.5 ppm
Wirrina Cove (South Australia) – Haloacetic Acid
11/10/19: Wirrina Cove Total Haloacetic Acid 273ug/L
9/4/20: Wirrina Cove Total Haloacetic Acid 219ug/L
9/4/21: Wirrina Cove Total Haloacetic Acid (HAA9) 120ug/L
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Wirrina Cove (South Australia) – Chloride
2019/20: Wirrina Cove Chloride 605mg/L (max). 572mg/L av.
2022/23: Wirrina Cove Chloride 420mg/L (max). 295.6mg/L av.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Wirrina Cove (South Australia) – Hardness
2019/20: Wirrina Cove (South Australia) Total Hardness as CaCO3 296mg/L (max), 263mg/L av.
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Wirrina Cove (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids.
2019/20: Wirrina Cove Total Dissolved Solids (by EC) 1400mg/L (max), 1314mg/L av.
2022/23: Wirrina Cove Total Dissolved Solids (by EC) 947mg/L (max), 732.6mg/L av.
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Wirrina Cove (South Australia) – Haloacetonitriles
8/4/22: Wirrina Cove (South Australia) Dibromoacetonitrile 18.6* ug/L (max), (15.9ug/L av. 2021/22) *highest detection in South Australia for year
GUIDELINE
Data are inadequate to set guideline values for haloacetonitriles in drinking water
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Haloacetonitriles are formed from organic precursors during chlorination or chloramination of drinking water. Concentrations of dihaloacetonitriles reported overseas range up to 0.04 mg/L but are typically less than 0.003 mg/L. Concentrations of trichloroacetonitrile are less than 0.001 mg/L. Trichloroacetonitrile has been used as an insecticide. No data are available on uses for the other haloacetonitriles.
Upgrades to improve Wirrina Cove’s drinking water begin
Upgrades to SA Water’s Wirrina Cove treatment plant are set to improve the quality of drinking water for local customers.
SA Water took the reins of Wirrina Cove’s water network from the District Council of Yankalilla in July 2019, assuming responsibility of its operation and maintenance, and now work is underway to improve the overall network.
SA Water asset operations and delivery general manager Mark Gobbie said while Wirrina Cove’s water supply currently did not look ideal, it was safe to drink.
“We acknowledge there’s still a way to go to bringing the aesthetic quality of the water to an acceptable standard for local residents and businesses, but I assure you the water remains safe to drink, and we are committed to improving supply in a timely and cost-efficient way,” he said.
He said new and extra treatment infrastructure installed at the water treatment plant would improve water quality and the overall management of the Wirrina Cove drinking water network.
“A specialised aerator will assist in improving the taste and smell of our local customers’ tap water and our compliance with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” he said.
“It works by removing chlorine disinfection by-products from the water, which are created by the interaction of chlorine with organic matter in the reservoir.”
Infrastructure at Wirrina Cove Reservoir was also upgraded, with a new pontoon installed at the edge to make loading and unloading and equipment onto small boats safer and more efficient before they headed out to complete monitoring, testing and treatment activities.
These tasks are conducted to give a detailed picture of “how the body of water is behaving or whether there are any localised issues such as algae”.
“The presence of algae in open water sources is a common event during warmer weather when conditions are favourable for growth, but can also occur as a result of an excess of nutrients entering the water through rain runoff or bank erosion,” Mr Gobbie said.
“Algal blooms cause a naturally-occurring compound called geosmin, which can affect water aesthetics, but is harmless to human health. The Wirrina Cove Reservoir is no exception to this water quality challenge.”
Across Australia, targeted activated carbon dosing at water treatment facilities absorb geosmin in the water before the carbon is removed through the plant’s usual treatment process – but this process is unable to be done at the Wirrina Cove plant.
Mr Gobbie said specialised equipment is being built to enable the carbon dosing can soon occur there.
“We will continue updating the community as further investigations and improvement work progresses, with information sheets currently included with each quarterly water bill sent to local SA Water customers,” he said.
Residents of a Jervis Bay Aboriginal community are too scared to drink from the town’s mains water supply and say cultural practices have been stripped from them due to chemical contamination from the HMAS Creswell navy base.
Local Indigenous community leader James Williams said Wreck Bay residents were deeply concerned since the Department of Defence identified PFAS — synthetic chemicals that were used in firefighting foam for decades — had contaminated waterways in 2016.
While only low levels not deemed to be a risk to human health were found in the town’s drinking water at Lake Windemere, Indigenous community spokesman James Williams said residents were not willing to risk it.
“I found out people were boiling their water to have a cup of tea or cook dinner,” Mr Williams said.
“We decided to start a fundraiser to buy bottled water for those who couldn’t afford it to ease their minds.
Traditional communities have long sourced food from creeks in the area, including the much-loved spiny crayfish, and Mr Williams said residents now felt their culture had been stripped from them as they struggled to feed their families.
“We can’t go and hunt and gather anymore,” Mr Williams said.
“The seafood was a vital part of our diet and cultural practices here.
“It has impacted our community on a huge scale mentally, physically, and culturally.”
Despite the initial PFAS testing being done more than four years ago, the community remains in limbo.
No plan on how the contaminated areas will be managed or ecological risk assessment for Jervis Bay has been released by Defence.
“Defence has collected multiple samples from Lake Windemere, where the territory’s drinking water is sourced.
“Although PFAS has been detected, the concentrations found to date have all been many times lower than the national health based guidance value for PFAS in drinking water.”
Health effects of PFAS still unknown
The Department of Defence maintains there is no evidence linking PFAS exposure to adverse human health effects, however a number of Australian studies are underway that could change this.
A PFAS health study at the Australian National University is currently analysing blood tests from people living in communities with high PFAS exposure to determine its extent of PFAS in the population and its health effects.
Professor Martyn Kirk, part of the research team conducting the study, said results should be available by the end of next year.
“The three communities being studied are Williamtown, Oakey, and Katherine,” he said.
“We are looking to find out how much higher levels are in blood tests from these affected areas compared to non affected areas.
“There are also a number of other studies looking into health effects.”
New water treatment facilities worth $100,000 will be installed at Venus Bay and Port Kenny bore sites to improve water quality for residents and businesses.
The Elliston District Council supplies non-potable water from bores for both towns but the water has become too saline.
The council’s chief executive officer Geoff Sheridan said the ideal Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) measure for drinking water was 300 milligrams per litre but Port Kenny’s water had 3530 mg/l and Venus Bay’s 5730 mg/l.
Mr Sheridan said while residents had rainwater tanks for drinking water, the non-potable supply had become too corrosive to put through hot water systems and was so bad at Venus Bay that tourists were beginning to complain.
“To attract people to our towns we need to have a decent water supply,” Mr Sheridan said.
“The Venus Bay Caravan Park is receiving more and more complaints regarding the quality of the water and many caravaners are threatening not to visit again unless the water quality is improved.”
Mr Sheridan said the Port Kenny Hotel was trucking in its own water, about 25,000 litres from Wudinna every six weeks.
To solve the problem the council has decided to install new treatment facilities – containerised brackish water reverse osmosis systems – at bore sites to meet potable water standards.
“It is proposed that the systems be placed at the bore sites to supply the treated water through the existing infrastructure,” Mr Sheridan said.
The treatment plants will cost $100,000 which includes a $20,000 contribution from the Venus Bay Caravan Park for installation.
Mr Sheridan said the installation could be complete by the end of March.
New water treatment facilities worth $100,000 will be installed at Venus Bay and Port Kenny bore sites to improve water quality for residents and businesses.
The Elliston District Council supplies non-potable water from bores for both towns but the water has become too saline.
The council’s chief executive officer Geoff Sheridan said the ideal Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) measure for drinking water was 300 milligrams per litre but Port Kenny’s water had 3530 mg/l and Venus Bay’s 5730 mg/l.
Mr Sheridan said while residents had rainwater tanks for drinking water, the non-potable supply had become too corrosive to put through hot water systems and was so bad at Venus Bay that tourists were beginning to complain.
“To attract people to our towns we need to have a decent water supply,” Mr Sheridan said.
“The Venus Bay Caravan Park is receiving more and more complaints regarding the quality of the water and many caravaners are threatening not to visit again unless the water quality is improved.”
Mr Sheridan said the Port Kenny Hotel was trucking in its own water, about 25,000 litres from Wudinna every six weeks.
To solve the problem the council has decided to install new treatment facilities – containerised brackish water reverse osmosis systems – at bore sites to meet potable water standards.
“It is proposed that the systems be placed at the bore sites to supply the treated water through the existing infrastructure,” Mr Sheridan said.
The treatment plants will cost $100,000 which includes a $20,000 contribution from the Venus Bay Caravan Park for installation.
Mr Sheridan said the installation could be complete by the end of March.
In consultation with NSW Health, Council has lifted the Boil Water Advisory for Mudgee as of 10am this morning, Friday 29 November.
It is now safe for residents to consume Mudgee town water without boiling.
Water quality testing by a NSW Health laboratory (FASS) this morning confirmed that all water samples complied with Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG).
Council issued a Boil Water Advisory at 6pm on Tuesday, in consultation with NSW Health, for the Mudgee town water supply.
Storm activity on Sunday and Monday resulted in runoff that led to turbid conditions in the Cudgegong River, the source supply of Mudgee town water.
The Mudgee Water Treatment Plant was not able to produce treated water that complied with Australian Drinking Water Guidelines for turbidity for a short period of time on Tuesday evening.
The notice caused mild panic in Mudgee with supermarkets quickly selling out of bottled water stock.
Council’s General Manager Brad Cam said staff worked through the night to improve water quality.
“These tests confirm the samples from Mudgee’s distribution pipelines met Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and we’re now able to lift the boil water advisory,” Mr Cam said.
“Council would like to thank the community for their co-operation and assistance in delivering the message to neighbours, friends and family.
“This was a unique set of circumstances that brought about the advisory, however necessary to ensure the health of our community.”
Many people who have been suffering with brown water coming out of their taps for weeks in various areas of the region, are not convinced by assurances from Central Coast Council that the water is safe to drink, despite its colour.
Ratepayers from Point Clare to the Peninsula, Empire Bay and Killcare Heights, have reported muddy looking water pouring from the taps inside their homes, with numerous accounts on social media of water not being fit to bathe or wash clothes in.
Killcare Heights resident, Sharon McEvoy, is convinced that drinking the brownish water over recent weeks resulted in “the worst case of diarrhoea I have ever experienced”.“About a fortnight ago, I started to get really sick with diarrhoea and battled it for a week before going to the doctor, who conducted some tests,” she said.
“He said tests had revealed aeromonas in my system and that this usually resulted from contaminated water.
“I was so weak I couldn’t even climb the stairs in my home without having to sit down at the top,” she said.
“When you pour a glass of water, the discolouration isn’t as apparent, but when you fill a bathtub or handbasin, you can see how brown it is.”
Since visiting the doctor, McEvoy has been only drinking bottled water. “It is costly and hard lugging bottles of water home, but I am afraid to drink (tap) water until I know it’s clean again.
“We shouldn’t have to live like this.
“Council needs to do whatever is necessary so we can drink the water.”
But Council’s Director, Water and Sewer, Jamie Loader, said there was nothing in the water which would cause McEvoy’s illness.
“Although not appealing, the water remains safe to drink,” Loader said.
“Regular tests performed by Council and independent National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) registered laboratories, ensure that water is safe for human consumption and complies with the water quality values provided in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.”
Loader said discoloured water was a common occurrence which could be caused by several issues.
“It is more frequently experienced during summer and periods of daily or seasonally higher demand in low lying areas, dead end streets, and streets that normally experience low flow velocities,” he said.
“Council regularly carries out programmed flushing on a fortnightly and monthly basis for areas with known historic patterns of discoloured and dirty water complaints to reduce the likelihood of this occurring.”
Loader said the flushing program had been delayed over recent weeks as crews respond to urgent works following heavy storms in February.
In response to calls on social media for Council to release the analytical detail which confirms its statement that the brown water is safe to drink, Loader said Council “had no plans to publish the information at this stage.
“It will be published in the annual report,” he said.
Loader said Council was constantly conducting a water mains renewal program, with $40M to be spent on it this year and $60M next year.
“In the event of discoloured water, first check Council’s website to see if there is a disruption in your area,” he said.
“If there is not a disruption, residents are advised to run the front garden tap into a bucket for 60 seconds every half an hour to check if the water has cleared.
“If the water in the front tap does not improve after an hour contact Council on 1300 463 954.
“Once the water in the front tap is clear, clear inside water lines by running the back garden tap into a bucket until the water is clear.
“Water collected during this process can be used to water gardens.
“Please be aware that the quality of drinking water can change once it leaves Council’s distribution system and enters the plumbing on private property.
“Those experiencing repeat discoloured water incidents are encouraged to contact Council with details of where and when the event occurred to help us analyse the information to determine further action.”
Many people who have been suffering with brown water coming out of their taps for weeks in various areas of the region, are not convinced by assurances from Central Coast Council that the water is safe to drink, despite its colour.
Ratepayers from Point Clare to the Peninsula, Empire Bay and Killcare Heights, have reported muddy looking water pouring from the taps inside their homes, with numerous accounts on social media of water not being fit to bathe or wash clothes in.
Killcare Heights resident, Sharon McEvoy, is convinced that drinking the brownish water over recent weeks resulted in “the worst case of diarrhoea I have ever experienced”.“About a fortnight ago, I started to get really sick with diarrhoea and battled it for a week before going to the doctor, who conducted some tests,” she said.
“He said tests had revealed aeromonas in my system and that this usually resulted from contaminated water.
“I was so weak I couldn’t even climb the stairs in my home without having to sit down at the top,” she said.
“When you pour a glass of water, the discolouration isn’t as apparent, but when you fill a bathtub or handbasin, you can see how brown it is.”
Since visiting the doctor, McEvoy has been only drinking bottled water. “It is costly and hard lugging bottles of water home, but I am afraid to drink (tap) water until I know it’s clean again.
“We shouldn’t have to live like this.
“Council needs to do whatever is necessary so we can drink the water.”
But Council’s Director, Water and Sewer, Jamie Loader, said there was nothing in the water which would cause McEvoy’s illness.
“Although not appealing, the water remains safe to drink,” Loader said.
“Regular tests performed by Council and independent National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) registered laboratories, ensure that water is safe for human consumption and complies with the water quality values provided in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.”
Loader said discoloured water was a common occurrence which could be caused by several issues.
“It is more frequently experienced during summer and periods of daily or seasonally higher demand in low lying areas, dead end streets, and streets that normally experience low flow velocities,” he said.
“Council regularly carries out programmed flushing on a fortnightly and monthly basis for areas with known historic patterns of discoloured and dirty water complaints to reduce the likelihood of this occurring.”
Loader said the flushing program had been delayed over recent weeks as crews respond to urgent works following heavy storms in February.
In response to calls on social media for Council to release the analytical detail which confirms its statement that the brown water is safe to drink, Loader said Council “had no plans to publish the information at this stage.
“It will be published in the annual report,” he said.
Loader said Council was constantly conducting a water mains renewal program, with $40M to be spent on it this year and $60M next year.
“In the event of discoloured water, first check Council’s website to see if there is a disruption in your area,” he said.
“If there is not a disruption, residents are advised to run the front garden tap into a bucket for 60 seconds every half an hour to check if the water has cleared.
“If the water in the front tap does not improve after an hour contact Council on 1300 463 954.
“Once the water in the front tap is clear, clear inside water lines by running the back garden tap into a bucket until the water is clear.
“Water collected during this process can be used to water gardens.
“Please be aware that the quality of drinking water can change once it leaves Council’s distribution system and enters the plumbing on private property.
“Those experiencing repeat discoloured water incidents are encouraged to contact Council with details of where and when the event occurred to help us analyse the information to determine further action.”
Many people who have been suffering with brown water coming out of their taps for weeks in various areas of the region, are not convinced by assurances from Central Coast Council that the water is safe to drink, despite its colour.
Ratepayers from Point Clare to the Peninsula, Empire Bay and Killcare Heights, have reported muddy looking water pouring from the taps inside their homes, with numerous accounts on social media of water not being fit to bathe or wash clothes in.
Killcare Heights resident, Sharon McEvoy, is convinced that drinking the brownish water over recent weeks resulted in “the worst case of diarrhoea I have ever experienced”.“About a fortnight ago, I started to get really sick with diarrhoea and battled it for a week before going to the doctor, who conducted some tests,” she said.
“He said tests had revealed aeromonas in my system and that this usually resulted from contaminated water.
“I was so weak I couldn’t even climb the stairs in my home without having to sit down at the top,” she said.
“When you pour a glass of water, the discolouration isn’t as apparent, but when you fill a bathtub or handbasin, you can see how brown it is.”
Since visiting the doctor, McEvoy has been only drinking bottled water. “It is costly and hard lugging bottles of water home, but I am afraid to drink (tap) water until I know it’s clean again.
“We shouldn’t have to live like this.
“Council needs to do whatever is necessary so we can drink the water.”
But Council’s Director, Water and Sewer, Jamie Loader, said there was nothing in the water which would cause McEvoy’s illness.
“Although not appealing, the water remains safe to drink,” Loader said.
“Regular tests performed by Council and independent National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) registered laboratories, ensure that water is safe for human consumption and complies with the water quality values provided in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.”
Loader said discoloured water was a common occurrence which could be caused by several issues.
“It is more frequently experienced during summer and periods of daily or seasonally higher demand in low lying areas, dead end streets, and streets that normally experience low flow velocities,” he said.
“Council regularly carries out programmed flushing on a fortnightly and monthly basis for areas with known historic patterns of discoloured and dirty water complaints to reduce the likelihood of this occurring.”
Loader said the flushing program had been delayed over recent weeks as crews respond to urgent works following heavy storms in February.
In response to calls on social media for Council to release the analytical detail which confirms its statement that the brown water is safe to drink, Loader said Council “had no plans to publish the information at this stage.
“It will be published in the annual report,” he said.
Loader said Council was constantly conducting a water mains renewal program, with $40M to be spent on it this year and $60M next year.
“In the event of discoloured water, first check Council’s website to see if there is a disruption in your area,” he said.
“If there is not a disruption, residents are advised to run the front garden tap into a bucket for 60 seconds every half an hour to check if the water has cleared.
“If the water in the front tap does not improve after an hour contact Council on 1300 463 954.
“Once the water in the front tap is clear, clear inside water lines by running the back garden tap into a bucket until the water is clear.
“Water collected during this process can be used to water gardens.
“Please be aware that the quality of drinking water can change once it leaves Council’s distribution system and enters the plumbing on private property.
“Those experiencing repeat discoloured water incidents are encouraged to contact Council with details of where and when the event occurred to help us analyse the information to determine further action.”
Bega Valley Shire Council issues boil-water notice from Brogo to Bermagui
11 Jan 22 (aboutregional.com.au)
The combination of heavy rainfall and summer visitors to southeast NSW has led to Bega Valley Shire Council issuing a boil-water notice for users connected to the Brogo-Bermagui water supply.
Boiling water before use for drinking, food preparation, teeth cleaning and ice-making is now considered essential for water users in Quaama, Cobargo, Bermagui, Beauty Point, Fairhaven, Wallaga Lake, Wallaga Lake Heights, Wallaga Lake Koori Village and Akolele.
Water issues are not new to Bega Valley communities, but they have been somewhat mitigated in recent times by the temporary water treatment facility in Brogo.
Bega Valley Shire Council’s water and sewer services manager, Chris Best, said the Brogo facility is struggling to manage the current increase in demand, and his team has been “working around the clock” since heavy rain on Thursday, 6 January, 2022.
“With more visitors in the area during the summer break, it has reached the point where the treatment plant can no longer cope with the higher demand,” he said.
“The temporary plant has reduced the need for boil-water notices since introducing flocculation technology, but even this has its limits which is why we are in the process of constructing a permanent treatment and filtration plant at the same site.”
Mr Best said that when the permanent facility is up and running – expected in late 2022 – the Brogo-Bermagui water supply will no longer require boiling after heavy rain events.
“We have previously avoided boil-water notices by carting water from our southern supply, however given the increase in usage at this time of year, this is currently not possible,” he said.
“Our water team will continue with a regular program of testing water from the Brogo River source, which is known for high turbidity levels, particularly following the Black Summer bushfires which heavily impacted the catchment.”
All other water supply in the Bega Valley Shire is currently unaffected.
Residents of bushfire-ravaged Bega Valley rely on carted water after flooding
Water is being trucked to several NSW south coast towns and a mobile treatment plant is filtering water at the Brogo dam
Towns in the bushfire-ravaged Bega Valley are relying on water carted in milk tanks after flooding made the catchment’s water supply undrinkable.
Bega Valley shire council has been trucking bore water from Bega for towns such as Bermagui, Cobargo and Quaama and the Australian Defence Force has set up a mobile water treatment plant to filter the water supply at the Brogo dam.
The Brogo catchment was burnt out in disastrous fires in the first week of January.
With no trees, grasses or other vegetation to act as a buffer, sediment, ash and other organic debris washed into Brogo dam last week when more than 150mm of rain fell across the catchment.
Chris Best, the council’s manager for water and sewer services, said residents were now under level four water restrictions to try to avoid a notice to boil water.
“It’s just another thing they’re having to go through,” Best said.
Best said in addition to carting water in – which had cost $300,000 so far – and the ADF mobile treatment plant, the council was pumping water from a creek that it hadn’t used to supply the water system for 20 years.
He said in the immediate aftermath of the flooding, turbidity levels reached 600 NTU. They are still at 25 NTU and for drinking water that figure should be five or less.
The dam is still overflowing and 200 megalitres of water a day are pouring over the spillway into the Brogo River.
“This shire has a pristine landscape,” Best said. “[Until now] we’ve managed not to have water treatment ever, just chlorination.”
The council is now seeking financial assistance from the New South Wales government to build a temporary water treatment plant, which is expected to cost $300,000. The mayor, Kristy McBain, is talking to the state’s water minister, Melinda Pavey.
The NSW government has said it will provide financial assistance to the council up to $350,000 for emergency water carting until 10 March, or until normal supply is restored, whichever is the sooner.
A permanent plant was promised by the state government in 2018 but still has to be built.
Best estimated the catchment would “stay burnt out for 18-24 months, meaning every time it rains it will happen again”.
“How to get through the next two years is something we have to work out,” he said.
Bega Valley Shire Council issues boil-water notice from Brogo to Bermagui
11 Jan 22 (aboutregional.com.au)
The combination of heavy rainfall and summer visitors to southeast NSW has led to Bega Valley Shire Council issuing a boil-water notice for users connected to the Brogo-Bermagui water supply.
Boiling water before use for drinking, food preparation, teeth cleaning and ice-making is now considered essential for water users in Quaama, Cobargo, Bermagui, Beauty Point, Fairhaven, Wallaga Lake, Wallaga Lake Heights, Wallaga Lake Koori Village and Akolele.
Water issues are not new to Bega Valley communities, but they have been somewhat mitigated in recent times by the temporary water treatment facility in Brogo.
Bega Valley Shire Council’s water and sewer services manager, Chris Best, said the Brogo facility is struggling to manage the current increase in demand, and his team has been “working around the clock” since heavy rain on Thursday, 6 January, 2022.
“With more visitors in the area during the summer break, it has reached the point where the treatment plant can no longer cope with the higher demand,” he said.
“The temporary plant has reduced the need for boil-water notices since introducing flocculation technology, but even this has its limits which is why we are in the process of constructing a permanent treatment and filtration plant at the same site.”
Mr Best said that when the permanent facility is up and running – expected in late 2022 – the Brogo-Bermagui water supply will no longer require boiling after heavy rain events.
“We have previously avoided boil-water notices by carting water from our southern supply, however given the increase in usage at this time of year, this is currently not possible,” he said.
“Our water team will continue with a regular program of testing water from the Brogo River source, which is known for high turbidity levels, particularly following the Black Summer bushfires which heavily impacted the catchment.”
All other water supply in the Bega Valley Shire is currently unaffected.
Residents of bushfire-ravaged Bega Valley rely on carted water after flooding
Water is being trucked to several NSW south coast towns and a mobile treatment plant is filtering water at the Brogo dam
Towns in the bushfire-ravaged Bega Valley are relying on water carted in milk tanks after flooding made the catchment’s water supply undrinkable.
Bega Valley shire council has been trucking bore water from Bega for towns such as Bermagui, Cobargo and Quaama and the Australian Defence Force has set up a mobile water treatment plant to filter the water supply at the Brogo dam.
The Brogo catchment was burnt out in disastrous fires in the first week of January.
With no trees, grasses or other vegetation to act as a buffer, sediment, ash and other organic debris washed into Brogo dam last week when more than 150mm of rain fell across the catchment.
Chris Best, the council’s manager for water and sewer services, said residents were now under level four water restrictions to try to avoid a notice to boil water.
“It’s just another thing they’re having to go through,” Best said.
Best said in addition to carting water in – which had cost $300,000 so far – and the ADF mobile treatment plant, the council was pumping water from a creek that it hadn’t used to supply the water system for 20 years.
He said in the immediate aftermath of the flooding, turbidity levels reached 600 NTU. They are still at 25 NTU and for drinking water that figure should be five or less.
The dam is still overflowing and 200 megalitres of water a day are pouring over the spillway into the Brogo River.
“This shire has a pristine landscape,” Best said. “[Until now] we’ve managed not to have water treatment ever, just chlorination.”
The council is now seeking financial assistance from the New South Wales government to build a temporary water treatment plant, which is expected to cost $300,000. The mayor, Kristy McBain, is talking to the state’s water minister, Melinda Pavey.
The NSW government has said it will provide financial assistance to the council up to $350,000 for emergency water carting until 10 March, or until normal supply is restored, whichever is the sooner.
A permanent plant was promised by the state government in 2018 but still has to be built.
Best estimated the catchment would “stay burnt out for 18-24 months, meaning every time it rains it will happen again”.
“How to get through the next two years is something we have to work out,” he said.
Following heavy rain within the Yass Dam water supply catchment, Yass Valley Council in conjunction with NSW Health has introduced a Boil Water Alert for Yass, Binalong, and Bowning.
Council has said that the Boil Water Alert is likely to be in place for at least one week and could be longer depending on how quickly things settle down after the recent heavy rainfall.
“More rain is predicted at the end of the week and this follow up rain may result in an extension of the Boil Water Alert, depending on its intensity,” a statement issued by the council states.
Acting Director of Infrastructure & Assets, Steven Beasley said that there is no link to the discharge of partially treated effluent from the Lower Molonglo Water Control Centre by ICON Water on Sunday.
“The drinking water supplying the towns of Yass, Bowning, and Binalong is drawn from Yass Dam. The majority of ‘source’ or ‘raw’ water supplies in Australia contain natural levels or organic and inorganic material,” he said.
“The aim of water treatment is to reduce the levels of organic and inorganic material and, in particular, any material associated with pathogens such as protozoa, bacteria, and viruses.
“In the case of Yass, heavy rain caused raw water to become extremely turbid (not clear or transparent because of stirred-up sediment) and compromised the effectiveness of the treatment process.
“Council has a strict water quality management system in place at Yass WTP and turbidity trigger levels were reached, ultimately resulting in the issue of a Boil Water Alert in consultation with NSW Health.”
Residents and businesses will be advised when the boil water notice is lifted through the council’s website, Facebook page, and the local media.
Following heavy rain within the Yass Dam water supply catchment, Yass Valley Council in conjunction with NSW Health has introduced a Boil Water Alert for Yass, Binalong, and Bowning.
Council has said that the Boil Water Alert is likely to be in place for at least one week and could be longer depending on how quickly things settle down after the recent heavy rainfall.
“More rain is predicted at the end of the week and this follow up rain may result in an extension of the Boil Water Alert, depending on its intensity,” a statement issued by the council states.
Acting Director of Infrastructure & Assets, Steven Beasley said that there is no link to the discharge of partially treated effluent from the Lower Molonglo Water Control Centre by ICON Water on Sunday.
“The drinking water supplying the towns of Yass, Bowning, and Binalong is drawn from Yass Dam. The majority of ‘source’ or ‘raw’ water supplies in Australia contain natural levels or organic and inorganic material,” he said.
“The aim of water treatment is to reduce the levels of organic and inorganic material and, in particular, any material associated with pathogens such as protozoa, bacteria, and viruses.
“In the case of Yass, heavy rain caused raw water to become extremely turbid (not clear or transparent because of stirred-up sediment) and compromised the effectiveness of the treatment process.
“Council has a strict water quality management system in place at Yass WTP and turbidity trigger levels were reached, ultimately resulting in the issue of a Boil Water Alert in consultation with NSW Health.”
Residents and businesses will be advised when the boil water notice is lifted through the council’s website, Facebook page, and the local media.
2017/18: There were twenty-one (21) instances where pH exceeded the ADWG aesthetic minimum limit of 6.5
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
1/9/20 Untreated Silvan water pretty clean anyway, contrite supplier claims
The Age: https://www.theage.com.au/politics/victoria/untreated-silvan-water-pretty-clean-anyway-contrite-supplier-claims-20200901-p55r8d.html
Melbourne Water has apologised for a “rare event” that led to more than 270,000 Victorians being told to boil their drinking water for up to two days last week.
On Friday, Yarra Valley Water and South East Water were left scrambling to secure treated water supplies for 99 suburbs, after storms on Thursday night sparked power outages that allowed untreated water from Silvan Dam to enter the water supply.
Yarra Valley Water issued a warning to its customers on social media, directing customers to its website for more information about whether their suburb was affected.
Both providers’ websites crashed, amid widespread complaints from customers they weren’t told about the issue until after they’d drunk potentially contaminated water.
But Melbourne Water on Tuesday moved to assure customers that even untreated water from Silvan Reservoir is among the cleanest in the world.
Yarra Valley Water and South East Water buy bulk water from wholesaler Melbourne Water, which gets water from a range of water catchments.
The water released into parts of Melbourne’s water system on Thursday night came from Silvan Reservoir, where it is naturally filtered from forested catchments that are off limits to the public.
Melbourne Water says this water usually requires minimal chlorination treatment because of its high quality, and that untreated water is of low risk to the public.
Melbourne Water service delivery general manager Craig Dixon said a series of failures led to the water contamination.
“Thursday night’s severe storms caused a widespread power outage with the subsequent failure of the two – main and back-up – incoming power feeders causing the treatment process of water from Silvan Dam to go offline,” Mr Dixon said.
“The generator kicked in and, after successfully running for a number of hours, failed. This is a rare event.
“In the last 20 years this is only the second time in which the two main power feeders and the generator have failed at the same time at Silvan water treatment plant.”
Melbourne Water is still investigating the incident and said that it was working to lessen the impacts from future outages where possible.
Melbourne Water brought in backup generators on Friday, and restored one mains power feeder on Friday night. The second feeder was brought back online by Saturday morning, and water was again being treated later that day.
All of the Melbourne suburbs cautioned to boil their water due to a contamination scare were given the all-clear on Sunday.
28/8/20: Silvan Dam Loses Power – Untreated water enters system 87 Suburbs Impacted
Age 28/8/20
Melbourne residents are waiting to hear when they will no longer need to boil drinking water, as many gathered on Saturday at emergency tankers to fill bottles and pots and pans after a wild storm caused widespread blackouts and potentially contaminated drinking supplies across at least 100 suburbs.
More than 270,000 households were still being urged to boil their water on Saturday afternoon as they anticipated an update at 8pm. About 10,000 homes remained without power after the vicious winds and heavy rain that lashed the state on Thursday night knocked out power to more than 130,000 customers.
The Silvan Dam – one of the main water supplies for the city’s northern and eastern suburbs – lost power during the storm and a back-up generator also failed, allowing potentially contaminated water to be pumped into people’s homes.
But blackouts have made it impossible for some residents without a gas supply to boil their water.
Water tankers were sent to The Basin, Boronia, Ferntree Gully, Upper Ferntree Gully, Belgrave, Upwey, Croydon North and Mt Evelyn on Saturday for the second day, with residents encouraged to “bring your own bottles, pots [and] kettles to fill up from the tankers”.
Suburbs still affected by water contamination warning as of 10pm Saturday
Yarra Valley Water named 87 suburbs affected, including Doncaster, Reservoir and Eltham, while South East Water issued alerts for 13 suburbs still affected on Saturday morning.
Yarra Valley Water said it expected the water supply to back to normal by Saturday evening, but that confirmation may come at 8pm.
The company said it was conducting water quality tests to “ensure there is no risk”. Residents in affected suburbs will be notified as soon as the water is safe to drink again.
In the meantime, residents should bring their tap water to a “rolling boil” – a vigorous boil in which the bubbles do not lessen when the liquid is stirred – as a precaution for drinking, brushing teeth, food preparation, making baby formula, ice or bathing infants in the 100 affected suburbs including Epping, Doncaster, Croydon, Coburg North, Craigieburn, Mernda and Ringwood.
Chief Health Officer Professor Brett Sutton said he hoped the water boiling advisory would not be in place “for too long”, but if anyone drank the contaminated water they could get mild gastro-like symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhoea, cramps and headaches.
Thousands of homes across Melbourne’s eastern suburbs, the Yarra Yalley, South West Gippsland and Eastern Victoria were facing a third night without power on Saturday, with the suburbs Kilsyth, Ferntree Gully and The Basin worst affected.
Severe infestations of blue-green algae in Sydney’s drinking water catchments have soared 800 per cent, according to an audit which warned climate change is putting the sensitive waterways under increasing threat from toxic blooms.
The audit also called for an investigation into levels of pollution in Coxs River, which feeds into Warragamba Dam, Sydney’s main drinking water reservoir.
There are no government water quality monitoring stations in the section of the upper Coxs River that is of most concern due to a cluster of polluting businesses nearby.
A Sydney Water spokesperson said there was no risk to consumers because water is treated to meet Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
However Professor Stuart Khan from the University of NSW said the same guidelines stress that protecting the catchment is a key pillar of providing safe drinking water.
“If we had to treat poor quality water, it would require us to use more energy and more chemicals,” he said. “Costs to treat drinking water would increase, as would the greenhouse footprint and other environmental impacts.”
TheSun-Herald can also reveal there are health concerns over the potential use of blue-green algae tainted water to grow crops in the Sydney basin.
The audit of Sydney Drinking Water Catchment was released last month, covering 2016 to 2019.
It was prepared by independent consultants for WaterNSW, the agency in charge of protecting the health of the catchments.
A WaterNSW spokesman said it would review the audit and report back to the government but welcomed a finding its management of the catchment had “substantially improved” in recent decades.
The audit highlighted the continued risk of mining in the catchment after three oil spills had to be quickly remediated before they posed a threat to consumers.
Further investigation was also needed into the rehabilitation of coal mines and the water losses and water quality impacts they caused, the audit found.
“This audit provides strong evidence of the ongoing impacts and risks associated with mining,” Professor Khan said.
The WaterNSW spokesman said the government had recently adopted the recommendations of the Independent Expert Panel for Mining in the Catchment which “should address public concerns”.
The audit found the catchment was coming under increasing pressure due to climate change, which increased the likelihood of bushfires and blue-green algae blooms.
There were 223 “red alerts” for severe blue-green algae outbreaks between 2016 and 2019, up from 23 in the previous audit period.
The overall number of alerts was 1266, more than double the 556 in the previous audit.
Some strains of the algae are harmless but others produce hazardous toxins that can cause vomiting, liver and nerve damage, liver cancer and even death in humans and animals.
Of growing concern to scientists is also a potential connection between a toxin sometimes found in blue-green algae and motor neuron disease.
Dr Darren Baldwin, a Charles Sturt University professor who advises the government on extreme water quality events, said that warm and dry conditions associated with climate change “certainly” increased the likelihood of blooms.
“When algal blooms occur, councils have to invest significant additional money in water treatment,” he said.
Kansas Keeton, who has now relocated to the United States, called for further investigation into how the algae was affecting the crops, amid “extensive” scientific evidence the dangerous toxins can accumulate in vegetables such as tomatoes, lettuce and carrots.
More than 4,000 residents in the Hobart suburbs of Lauderdale, Acton, Seven Mile Beach and Roches Beach are being forced to boil their drinking water.
TasWater issued a temporary boil water alert after E.coli (Escherichia) bacteria was found after routine testing at the Lauderdale reservoir.
Alternative water supplies have been made available to the local school and aged care facility.
Tas Water’s program manager of technical solutions, Lance Stapleton said it was unclear how long the boil water alert would remain in place.
“We need to get to the bottom of what is the cause and then we need to fix the root cause, we also need to do two consecutive tests 24 hours apart to make sure the water is safe,” he said.
“So I anticipate this will be for at least another day or two, hopefully no longer than that”.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2019 November – Seven Mile Beach (Tasmania) – E.coli
Alert on drinking water over E.coli
More than 4,000 residents in the Hobart suburbs of Lauderdale, Acton, Seven Mile Beach and Roches Beach are being forced to boil their drinking water.
TasWater issued a temporary boil water alert after E.coli (Escherichia) bacteria was found after routine testing at the Lauderdale reservoir.
Alternative water supplies have been made available to the local school and aged care facility.
Tas Water’s program manager of technical solutions, Lance Stapleton said it was unclear how long the boil water alert would remain in place.
“We need to get to the bottom of what is the cause and then we need to fix the root cause, we also need to do two consecutive tests 24 hours apart to make sure the water is safe,” he said.
“So I anticipate this will be for at least another day or two, hopefully no longer than that”.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
More than 4,000 residents in the Hobart suburbs of Lauderdale, Acton, Seven Mile Beach and Roches Beach are being forced to boil their drinking water.
TasWater issued a temporary boil water alert after E.coli (Escherichia) bacteria was found after routine testing at the Lauderdale reservoir.
Alternative water supplies have been made available to the local school and aged care facility.
Tas Water’s program manager of technical solutions, Lance Stapleton said it was unclear how long the boil water alert would remain in place.
“We need to get to the bottom of what is the cause and then we need to fix the root cause, we also need to do two consecutive tests 24 hours apart to make sure the water is safe,” he said.
“So I anticipate this will be for at least another day or two, hopefully no longer than that”.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2019 November – Lauderdale (Tasmania) – E.vulernis
8/10/19: Routine sample (8/10/2019) taken from GOSTE112 (Supply- operational) detected 1 MPN/100mL E. coli. Department of Health (DoH) was immediately notified. The system was
flushed, and subsequent samples were clear of E. coli. System flushed with clean
water Subsequent samples clear of E.coli The original detection was
reclassified as E.vulneris#
#E.vulneris: This bacterium can colonize in the respiratory tract, genital tract, stool, and urinary tract. However, P. vulneris is most often associated with wounds and has been known to colonize open wounds of both humans and animals. This association gave the bacterium its species name, vulneris, which is Latin for wound.
Alert on drinking water over E.coli
More than 4,000 residents in the Hobart suburbs of Lauderdale, Acton, Seven Mile Beach and Roches Beach are being forced to boil their drinking water.
TasWater issued a temporary boil water alert after E.coli (Escherichia) bacteria was found after routine testing at the Lauderdale reservoir.
Alternative water supplies have been made available to the local school and aged care facility.
Tas Water’s program manager of technical solutions, Lance Stapleton said it was unclear how long the boil water alert would remain in place.
“We need to get to the bottom of what is the cause and then we need to fix the root cause, we also need to do two consecutive tests 24 hours apart to make sure the water is safe,” he said.
“So I anticipate this will be for at least another day or two, hopefully no longer than that”.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Bundarra Water Supply – Boil Water Alert – 7 January 2020
Lifted 23/1/20
Problems with water treatment mean that drinking water in the Bundarra Water Supply is unsafe due to elevated levels of turbidity in the treated water.
Turbidity is a measure of suspended particles in water.
Various samples were collected throughout the Midge Point water mains during an air scour conducted from 4-10 February 2016. The air scour was conducted in response to the high
levels of manganese detected in the Midge Point reticulation system (see non-compliance above).
E.coli was detected in some of the water samples collected during the air scour. These results were not surprising considering that the chlorinator at the Midge Point Reservoir was offline during the majority of the air scour.
Further review of this non-compliance has revealed that the mains were in fact isolated during the air scour and therefore the water was not being supplied to the public and did not pose
a threat to public health. As such this non-compliance should not have been reported to the regulator and these results have not been included as part of the rolling 12 month annual E.coli
value calculated in accordance with the Public Health Regulation 2005.
The Midge Point Reservoir chlorinator was turned on towards the end of the air scour and water samples were taken to confirm compliance with ADWG health values before the mains
were reconnected and water supplied to the public.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Bundarra (NSW) Lead
2000-2020 – Bundarra (NSW) – Lead 0.025mg/L (max), 0.0029 (mean)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Bundarra (New South Wales) – Iron
2000-2020: Bundarra (New South Wales) – Iron 1.23mg/L (max), 0.133 (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Bundarra (New South Wales) – Fluoride
2000-20: Bundarra (New South Wales) – Fluoride 1.55mg/L (max), 1.0639mg/L (mean)
From a total of 116 samples, there was one exceedance occurring 7 Feb 2012, with a fluoride concentration of 1.93 mg/L. Weekly fluoride monitoring performed by Council has detected 2 fluoride exceedances out of 680 samples.
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Dubbo Regional Council should be doing more to encourage water conservation, according to almost two-thirds of the respondants of a recent survey.
In July and August, council surveyed more than 700 people in the local government area to ask about their satisfaction with their water and sewerage service.
The level of satisfaction with response times to water supply problems grew from 56 per cent who were satisfied in 2017 to 80 per cent in 2020.
The satisfaction with the workmanship also increased from 78 per cent to 88 per cent.
But 63 per cent of respondants said council should do more to encourage water conservation.
Concerns were also raised about water quality in Mumbil, especially around the hardness of the water, that is the level of minerals in the water.
Geurie residents also reported problems with their water supply, mainly the quality and colour of water.
Council attributed the complaints to the dirty water and turbidity issues experienced in the town as a result of the drought and poor river quality following a period of heavy rainfall.
The water filtration plan has since been since been upgraded.
Dubbo deputy mayor Stephen Lawrence said the survey gave a “pretty interesting” insight into the community.
“It was interesting to me particularly that of those who answered, 63 per cent believe council should do more in respect of water conservation,” Cr Lawrence said.
“I thought that was an interesting response to get in July and August 2020 when we imposed water restrictions last year at a very high level and that was something that cause a lot of consternation and opinion in the community…”
But the deputy mayor said the response of the survey was comforting because it showed council had its finger on the pulse of the community
Geurie Alert Lifted 25 February 2020
The precautionary Boil Water Alert for Geurie has been lifted today.
Dubbo Regional Council director infrastructure Julian Geddes said water treated at the Geurie plant was now consistently meeting Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“We have lifted the precautionary Boiled Water Alert effective immediately. Residents are no longer required to boil water in Geurie,” he said.
“We thank the residents of Geurie for their co-operation and patience over the past four weeks. It has helped us during a challenging and unusual time in returning the town’s water to acceptable standards.”
Geurie had been on a Boil Water Alert since 30 January after rain and dust storms produced unusually high levels of turbidity in the Macquarie River and flows into the treatment plant.
Boiled water alert: Wellington, Geurie still affected says Dubbo Regional Council
Water quality in Geurie and Wellington is improving but it’s still not good enough to drink, says Dubbo Regional Council.
On Friday, council’s director infrastructure Julian Geddes confirmed the boil water alert would remain in place because the river was high in manganese and turbidity.
Mr Geddes said there had been improvement, but not to the level where the water was consistently meeting the drinking water guidelines.
“We do appreciate it is inconvenient for people to have to boil water but once again, our primary focus is people’s health. It’s a precautionary boiled water alert,” he said.
“It is dragging on longer than anyone would like and we want to make sure people don’t become complacent, and continue to boil their water for drinking brushing their teeth, preparing fresh veggies, babies bottles, things like that.”
It’s safe to shower and wash clothes in the water.
Western NSW Local Health District health protection manager Priscilla Stanley said there was a risk of gastro symptoms if the water was consumed. However, she said to date, no one from Geurie or Wellington had been sick.
For now, the Dubbo water remains safe to consume.
“Dubbo water treatment plant is operating within those drinking water guidelines, we’re quite happy with how it’s performing at the moment, but it’s taking water from the same source so it also has to work quite hard to meet those guidelines,” Mr Geddes said.
“We do also have the option in Dubbo of drawing from clean bore water sources as well. That does help the circumstances as well.”
The high turbidity and manganese have been caused by heavy downfalls in the river. In the long term, however, the rain will help repair the river and prevent the current issues.
“As the country recovers and we get more grass and groundcover it will stop all that sediment from washing into the river in the future. The country is looking like it’s recovering really well, there’s a lot of green grass poking up around the place and it’s looking really good,” Mr Geddes said.
“But some of those downfalls we’ve had in the past week have been quite heavy in isolated patches which has created a lot of that sediment.”
Mr Geddes said he was grateful to the residents of Geurie and Wellington for their patience.
Boil water alert lifted in Wellington – 25 March 2020
Dubbo Regional Council (DRC) in conjunction with NSW Health have today lifted the precautionary Boil Water Alert for Wellington.
Dubbo Regional Council Director Infrastructure Julian Geddes said water treated at the Wellington plant had now returned to a level that consistently met Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“We have lifted the precautionary Boiled Water Alert effective immediately. Residents are no longer required to boil water in Wellington,” he said. “Both Council and NSW Health thank the community of Wellington for their patience during the precautionary alert.”
“It was a challenging and unusual length of time required to return the town’s water to acceptable standards.”
Wellington had been on a Boil Water Alert since February after heavy rain and dust storms produced unusually high levels of turbidity in the Macquarie River and flows into the treatment plant.
Boiled water alert: Wellington, Geurie still affected says Dubbo Regional Council
Water quality in Geurie and Wellington is improving but it’s still not good enough to drink, says Dubbo Regional Council.
On Friday, council’s director infrastructure Julian Geddes confirmed the boil water alert would remain in place because the river was high in manganese and turbidity.
Mr Geddes said there had been improvement, but not to the level where the water was consistently meeting the drinking water guidelines.
“We do appreciate it is inconvenient for people to have to boil water but once again, our primary focus is people’s health. It’s a precautionary boiled water alert,” he said.
“It is dragging on longer than anyone would like and we want to make sure people don’t become complacent, and continue to boil their water for drinking brushing their teeth, preparing fresh veggies, babies bottles, things like that.”
It’s safe to shower and wash clothes in the water.
Western NSW Local Health District health protection manager Priscilla Stanley said there was a risk of gastro symptoms if the water was consumed. However, she said to date, no one from Geurie or Wellington had been sick.
For now, the Dubbo water remains safe to consume.
“Dubbo water treatment plant is operating within those drinking water guidelines, we’re quite happy with how it’s performing at the moment, but it’s taking water from the same source so it also has to work quite hard to meet those guidelines,” Mr Geddes said.
“We do also have the option in Dubbo of drawing from clean bore water sources as well. That does help the circumstances as well.”
The high turbidity and manganese have been caused by heavy downfalls in the river. In the long term, however, the rain will help repair the river and prevent the current issues.
“As the country recovers and we get more grass and groundcover it will stop all that sediment from washing into the river in the future. The country is looking like it’s recovering really well, there’s a lot of green grass poking up around the place and it’s looking really good,” Mr Geddes said.
“But some of those downfalls we’ve had in the past week have been quite heavy in isolated patches which has created a lot of that sediment.”
Mr Geddes said he was grateful to the residents of Geurie and Wellington for their patience.
A precautionary boil water alert for parts of Singleton has been lifted after NSW Health gave the all clear at a meeting with Singleton Council this morning.
The boil water alert was issued for the Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill on Monday 10 February, and extended to McDougalls Hill on Tuesday 11 February following water sampling results received late Monday 10 February that showed turbidity above and chlorine levels below the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Investigations into the cause of test results indicated that dirt entered the water network during heavy rainfall across 8-9 February.
Council staff worked across the weekend with testing showing that turbidity and chlorine levels had returned to normal.
Katie Hardy, Council’s Manager Water and Sewer Network, said Council staff would doorknock residents with information the boil water alert had been lifted, as well as contact businesses. Customers who collected free bottled water will also be emailed.
Information will be available on Council’s website and Facebook page as well as on the variable message board on Maison Dieu Road.
Customers in the affected areas of The Glade, Gowrie, Maison Dieu and Hambledon Hill and McDougalls Hill are advised to flush their pipework by running their back outdoor tap for 10 minutes before resuming normal use. Flushing of pipework in properties affected by the boil water alert is exempt from water restrictions.
The standpipe at Maison Dieu will be recommissioned for normal use and has been flushed by Council Officers.
“Council teams have been hard at work since the boil water alert was issued to drain and clean the reservoirs and scour pipework within the affected area,” Ms Hardy said.
“Since the reservoirs were flushed last Thursday and Friday, we’ve been undertaking regular testing across the weekend that showed the water was back to safe levels with no microbial contamination detected.
“On the advice of NSW Health, the boil water alert has now been lifted.
“We advise customers to flush their system by running their external tap for 10 minutes, which will be exempt from water restrictions, before drinking the water.”
Ms Hardy said Council was aware of the concern in the community as a result of the boil water alert, and thousands of bottles of water were distributed to affected residents in response to the situation.
“Council appreciates this situation caused some inconvenience for our customers last week, and we thank you for your patience and understanding,” she said.
Cabonne Council advises that consumers in Molong and on the Molong Town water supply should boil water until further notice.
Recent conditions including large influx of runoff into the Molong and Borenore Dams after prolonged drought have caused problems with water treatment potentially making drinking water in the Molong Town Water supply unsafe…
Cabonne Council is working closely with the public health agency to identify conditions that will enable the boil water advice to be lifted. To correct the problem the Cabonne Council is changing the raw water source to an alternative supply. It is expected three days is required to ensure the raw water quality is improved. The advisory will be in effect until the Cabonne Council and the NSW Health are confident that there is no longer a public health concern. Notification of the lifting of this advice will be given when the risk is reduced.
1 Jul 2020 1:00 PM – Scone boil water alert extended to Aberdeen & Murrurundi
Aberdeen, Murrurundi and Scone residents are advised to boil water for drinking and food preparation, until further notice.
The recent heavy rainfall in the Glenbawn Dam catchment has caused problems with effective water treatment making drinking water in the Scone water supply system register a poor raw water quality measurement.
Upper Hunter Shire Council is working to fix the problem and will notify residents as soon as the water quality risk has returned to normal.
We ask residents not to be alarmed – this alert to boil all drinking water is a proactive and preventative measure to manage the risk and ensure the safety of residents…
Heavy continuous rainfall in the Glenbawn catchment has caused the Aberdeen River turbidity level to increase. Based on the latest water quality results from the Scone water supply system, the turbidity is now too high to adequately guarantee the safety of the water for human consumption. This does not mean the water is unsafe – only that the risk of it being unsafe is too high.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
1 Jul 2020 1:00 PM – Scone boil water alert extended to Aberdeen & Murrurundi
Aberdeen, Murrurundi and Scone residents are advised to boil water for drinking and food preparation, until further notice.
The recent heavy rainfall in the Glenbawn Dam catchment has caused problems with effective water treatment making drinking water in the Scone water supply system register a poor raw water quality measurement.
Upper Hunter Shire Council is working to fix the problem and will notify residents as soon as the water quality risk has returned to normal.
We ask residents not to be alarmed – this alert to boil all drinking water is a proactive and preventative measure to manage the risk and ensure the safety of residents…
Heavy continuous rainfall in the Glenbawn catchment has caused the Aberdeen River turbidity level to increase. Based on the latest water quality results from the Scone water supply system, the turbidity is now too high to adequately guarantee the safety of the water for human consumption. This does not mean the water is unsafe – only that the risk of it being unsafe is too high.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
1 Jul 2020 1:00 PM – Scone boil water alert extended to Aberdeen & Murrurundi
Aberdeen, Murrurundi and Scone residents are advised to boil water for drinking and food preparation, until further notice.
The recent heavy rainfall in the Glenbawn Dam catchment has caused problems with effective water treatment making drinking water in the Scone water supply system register a poor raw water quality measurement.
Upper Hunter Shire Council is working to fix the problem and will notify residents as soon as the water quality risk has returned to normal.
We ask residents not to be alarmed – this alert to boil all drinking water is a proactive and preventative measure to manage the risk and ensure the safety of residents…
Heavy continuous rainfall in the Glenbawn catchment has caused the Aberdeen River turbidity level to increase. Based on the latest water quality results from the Scone water supply system, the turbidity is now too high to adequately guarantee the safety of the water for human consumption. This does not mean the water is unsafe – only that the risk of it being unsafe is too high.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
The area of Yeelirrie has tested positive for uranium in both surface and groundwater. Uranium
has been detected in exceedance, recording 0.439 mg/L1 in surface water (URS Australia
Pty Ltd, 2015) where the health based limit is 0.017 mg/L1; that is, 25 times higher, whereas
in the groundwater levels as high as 2.4 mg/L1 (140 times higher) were reported (URS Australia
Pty Ltd, 2011). Nitrates were present but levels were within guideline values. The surface water
sources reported here were ephemeral and not considered suitable for drinking water supply, stock watering, or irrigation. Many of the groundwater
bores in the Yeelirrie catchment are pastoral wells, monitoring wells, and production wells.Most pastoral wells have fallen into disuse in recent times, but at least one well in the area continued to be used as a water supply source.
Unsafe drinking water quality in remote Western
Australian Aboriginal communities Geographical Research 184 • May 2019 • 57(2), 178–188
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.017 mg/L.” ADWG 2011
‘Paint stripper’ tap water has residents of this Queensland town hitting the bottle
July 28 2020
Residents of the North Burnett town of Biggenden are having trouble swallowing news their tap water — reputed to strip paint from cars, make beer flat and kill gardens — is unlikely to improve soon.
The town of almost 1,000 people is about an hour from Bundaberg and Maryborough and sources its water from bores.
Publican Stuart Toms said the town water was so unappealing he had switched to rainwater and others were relying on the bottled variety.
“The water itself out of the tap will just leave a film on the glasses and send the beer flat,” he said.
“People in town aren’t even willing to water their gardens because it will kill your plants.
“One of the first things we were told was do not wash your car in this water because it has the potential to strip the paint off.”
He said it was difficult to understand why better quality water wasn’t available, given the town’s proximity to Bundaberg and Maryborough.
“It would be nice to see someone come out here and find out what is wrong.”
‘Safe but yucky’: Mayor
The North Burnett Council has been trying to address the issue since 2017.
Mayor Rachel Chambers said the water was safe to drink but not pleasant.
“I have heard that some people felt that it was making them sick but we couldn’t get any rhyme or reason for it,” he said. “The expert testing didn’t show anything in there that would have been causing that,” Cr Chambers said.
“I haven’t heard of it as a paint stripper, nor as a glass issue.
9/10/19: Mount Gambier (South Australia) E.coli 70 cfu/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Mount Gambier – Sparrow Ave (South Australia) – Hardness
2018/19: Mount Gambier – Sparrow Ave (South Australia) Hardness as CaCO3 316mg/L (max), 189.3mg/L (mean)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Mount Gambier (South Australia) Halonitromethanes
14/2/23: Mount Gambier (South Australia) Dibromonitromethane 1.5ug/L (max), 0.75ug/L (av. 2022/23)
Halonitromethanes are drinking water disinfection byproducts that have recently received a high priority for health effects research from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). …The brominated nitromethanes were more cytotoxic and genotoxic than their chlorinated analogues. This research demonstrated the integration of the procedures for the analytical chemistry and analytical biology when working with limited amounts of sample. The halonitromethanes are potent mammalian cell cytotoxins and genotoxins and may pose a hazard to the public health and the environment.
2018/19: Uley (South Australia) Hardness as CaCO3 281mg/L (max), 260.5mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Uley Total Hardness as CaCO3 305mg/L (max), 285.5mg/L av.
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Uley (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids
2019/20: Uley Total Dissolved Solids (by EC) 616mg/L (max), 592.75mg/L av.
2022/23: Uley Total Dissolved Solids (by EC) 694mg/L (max), 631.25mg/L av.
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
24/5/23: Tumby Bay (South Australia). E.coli 2 CFU/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Tumby Bay (South Australia) – Hardness
2018/19: Tumby Bay (South Australia) Hardness as CaCO3 255mg/L (max), 252.5mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Tumby Bay Total Hardness as CaCO3 273mg/L (max), 269mg/L av.
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Tumby Bay – South Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
2022/23: Tumby Bay (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids (by EC) 622mg/L (max), 602.5mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2018/19 Cleve (South Australia) Hardness as CaCO3 256mg/L (max), 249.5mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Cleve (South Australia) Total Hardness as CaCO3 269mg/L (max), 234.25mg/L av.
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2018/19 Coffin Bay (South Australia) Hardness as CaCO3 243mg/L (max), 232.25mg/L (mean)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Coffin Bay – South Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
2022/23: Coffin Bay (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 622mg/L (max), 494.25mg/L (av. 2022/23)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Pinnaroo (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
2018/19: Pinnaroo (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 770mg/L (max), 730mg/L (av)
2019/20: Pinnaroo Total Dissolved Solids (by EC) 745mg/L (max), 734.75mg/L av.
2022/23: Pinnaroo Total Dissolved Solids (by EC) 722mg/L (max), 713.75mg/L av.
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Pinnaroo (South Australia) – Hardness
2018/19: Pinnaroo (South Australia) Hardness as CaCO3 250mg/L (max), 246.75mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Pinnaroo Total Hardness as CaCO3 253mg/L (max), 243.25mg/L av.
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2018/19: Wami Kata Ostrich Farm House (South Australia) pH 8.725 (av)
2019/20: Wami Kata pH (average) 9.32pH units
2022/23: Wami Kata pH (average) 8.7pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Wami Kata (South Australia) Turbidity
1/10/19: Wami Kati Turbidity 6.7 NTU (max). 2019/20 av: 2.51NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2018/19: Iron Knob (South Australia) pH 8.609 (av)
2022/23: Iron Knob (South Australia) pH 8.583 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
15/11/21: Point Turton (South Australia) E.coli 2 cfu/100mL
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Point Turton (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2018/19: Point Turton (South Australia) pH 9.01 (av)
2019/20: Point Turton pH (average) 9.22pH units
2022/23: Point Turton pH (average) 8.73pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
14/8/20: Mount Barker (South Australia) Mercury – Total 0.00269mg/L
Mercury: Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.001mg/L
Mercury, if it enters the ecosystem can transform into the more toxic methylmercury where it can bioaccumulate. Methylmercury is highly toxic to human embryos, fetuses, infants and children. Mercury has numerous sources including old gold mines, where mercury was used in gold recovery process. It has been estimated that 950 tonnes of
mercury was deposited into Victorian soil, rivers and streams during the various gold rushes.
https://ntn.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/mercury_brief20101.pdf
Mount Barker (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2018/19: Mount Barker (South Australia) Average pH 8.717 (av)
2019/20: Mt Barker (South Australia) pH (average) 8.75pH units
2022/23: Mt Barker (South Australia) pH (average) 8.71pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Mount Barker (South Australia) – Ammonia
16/10/20: Mt Barker Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.56mg/L
13/11/20: Mt Barker Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.53mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/in
Sellicks Beach [Hastings Avenue] (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Since bromodichloromethane was listed in the Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens, additional studies in rats have been identified. Administration of bromodichloromethane in the drinking water increased the combined incidence of benign and malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma) in males (George et al. 2002) and caused benign liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma) in females (Tumasonis et al. 1987).
Cancer Studies in Humans
The data available from epidemiological studies are inadequate to evaluate the relationship between human cancer and exposure specifically to bromodichloromethane. Several epidemiological studies indicated a possible association between ingestion of chlorinated drinking water (which typically contains bromodichloromethane) and increased risk of
cancer in humans, but these studies could not provide information on whether any observed effects were due to bromodichloromethane or to one or more of the hundreds of other disinfection by-products also present in chlorinated water (ATSDR 1989).” (1)
Sellicks Beach (South Australia) – Total Haloacetic Acids
1/7/20: Sellicks Beach (Hastings Avenue) Total Haloacetic Acid (HAA9) 125ug/L
6/1/21: Sellicks Beach (Hastings Avenue) Total Haloacetic Acid (HAA9) 178ug/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council
Mercury: Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.001mg/L
Mercury, if it enters the ecosystem can transform into the more toxic methylmercury where it can bioaccumulate. Methylmercury is highly toxic to human embryos, fetuses, infants and children. Mercury has numerous sources including old gold mines, where mercury was used in gold recovery process. It has been estimated that 950 tonnes of
mercury was deposited into Victorian soil, rivers and streams during the various gold rushes.
https://ntn.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/mercury_brief20101.pdf
2022/23: Sellicks Beach (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2022/23: Sellicks Beach Hastings Beach. (South Australia) pH 8.6 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Australia’s highest radiation detection in a drinking water supply? Radon detected at over 5 times the drinking water guideline.
22/10/18: Wilmington (South Australia) – Radon 222 526Bq/L
10/12/18: Wilmington (South Australia) – Radon 222 154Bq/L
(average level October 2018-June 2019 at Wilmington 128.967Bq/L)
“Based on a consideration of the potential health impact from radon released from tap water to the air inside a dwelling, the activity concentration of radon‑222 in drinking water should not exceed 100 Bq/L.The guideline value applies to the concentration of radon at the point of use of the water, not at the source, because of the significant decrease in concentration which can occur due to radioactive decay during storage, treatment and reticulation.
Radon‑222 is a radioactive gas produced from the decay of radium‑226 in soil and minerals. It has a half-life of 3.8 days. Elevated concentrations of radon‑222 may occur in drinking water derived from groundwater, due to the release of radon from aquifer rocks and minerals, particularly in granitic areas. In Finland, for example, the weighted average radon concentration in drinking water is 25 Bq/L. Radon concentrations in surface water supplies are very low because the gas is rapidly lost to the atmosphere. Studies from Canada, Finland and the United States have shown that dissolved radon‑222 in drinking water may be released to air during domestic use and contribute to indoor radon concentrations.
HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS The main health risk from radon arises from inhalation of the gas, particularly when it accumulates inside dwellings. Radon‑222 has several short-lived radioactive progeny that can give rise to an increased risk of lung cancer.
Epidemiological studies of underground miners in the uranium mining industry overseas have established a relationship between the incidence of lung cancer and occupational exposure to radon. No link has been demonstrated, however, in either experimental or epidemiological studies, between ingestion of radon in drinking water and increased cancer rates.” ADWG 2011
2004?: Sydney Rainwater Tanks (New South Wales) – Lead
“…In Brisbane (Queensland), a study detected lead in 15% of harvested rainwater samples at concentrations ranging from 0.01 ppm to 10.0 ppm (with one sample having a concentration of 85.0 ppm) [20]. In Sydney, Newcastle (New South Wales) and Esperance (Western Australia), the situation was similar. Water sampled from rain water tanks in Sydney contained lead up to 0.35 ppm [22], up to 0.16 ppm in Esperance [23], and up to 5.77 ppm in Newcastle [24]. A tank in the town of Karumba in the Shire of Carpentaria, northern Queensland contained up to 100 ppm lead [14].
These results demonstrate a need for future epidemiological studies to determine whether there is a public health risk from these detected levels.”
Lead, Zinc, Copper, and Cadmium Content of Water from South Australian Rainwater Tanks
Chirhakarhula E. Chubaka ID , Harriet Whiley ID , John W. Edwards and Kirstin E. Ross
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1551; doi:10.3390/ijerph15071551
Lead
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
“…In Brisbane (Queensland), a study detected lead in 15% of harvested rainwater samples at
concentrations ranging from 0.01 ppm to 10.0 ppm (with one sample having a concentration of 85.0 ppm) [20]. In Sydney, Newcastle (New South Wales) and Esperance (Western Australia),
the situation was similar. Water sampled from rain water tanks in Sydney contained lead up to
0.35 ppm [22], up to 0.16 ppm in Esperance [23], and up to 5.77 ppm in Newcastle [24]. A tank in the town of Karumba in the Shire of Carpentaria, northern Queensland contained up to 100 ppm lead [14].
These results demonstrate a need for future epidemiological studies to determine whether there is a public health risk from these detected levels.”
Lead, Zinc, Copper, and Cadmium Content of Water from South Australian Rainwater Tanks
Chirhakarhula E. Chubaka ID , Harriet Whiley ID , John W. Edwards and Kirstin E. Ross
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1551; doi:10.3390/ijerph15071551
Lead
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
2015/16: Adelaide “Hills” (South Australia) – Lead
Higher lead levels were detected most often in the Adelaide foothills. In that area, 51% of samples contained lead above the ADWG, compared with 41% in the Adelaide hills, and 27% in the Adelaide plains…
In addition to lead, the study detected zinc, cadmium, and copper in a few samples that exceeded the ADWG limits. Zinc was above the ADWG of 3.0 ppm in 53 (14.5%) samples. As with lead, the number of samples that exceeded the zinc ADWG limits was highest in the Adelaide foothills, and lowest in the Adelaide plains (Figure 2). It should be noted that the zinc and copper guidelines are guidelines for aesthetic reasons and not health based guidelines [18]…
Lead was the metal of greatest concern detected in rainwater in the Adelaide region above the
ADWG. The presence of lead in rainwater at concentrations above NHMRC guidelines is supported by previous studies…This study found that the concentration of lead in Adelaide rainwater ranged from <0.01 ppm (limit of detection) to 3.24 ppm, which is consistent with studies of other urban areas in Australia…
In Adelaide, it is not clear where the lead found in rainwater samples comes from, although
the relationship detected between lead and both roof material and geographic region might provide some clues. It is possible that the lead comes from the roof material, although lead as a component of galvanized or coated metal roofs is not regularly reported. The lead might be environmental…
This study indicates that lead was the metal detected in samples above the ADWG most often.
Of 53 tanks surveyed, lead was detected in 47 tanks above the ADWG, in at least one sampling event. Zinc, cadmium, and copper were detected in fewer samples, predominantly in the Adelaide hills and foothills. Lead and zinc in rainwater content was consistent with roof materials and geographic area, although it was not possible to determine which of these effects was the primary contributor, as roof material in the Adelaide hills and Adelaide foothills are primarily, or solely, galvanised metal.”
Lead, Zinc, Copper, and Cadmium Content of Water from South Australian Rainwater Tanks
Chirhakarhula E. Chubaka ID , Harriet Whiley ID , John W. Edwards and Kirstin E. Ross
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1551; doi:10.3390/ijerph15071551
Lead
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Copper
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L. Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
Zinc
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
2015/16: Adelaide “Hills” (South Australia) – Lead
Higher lead levels were detected most often in the Adelaide foothills. In that area, 51% of samples contained lead above the ADWG, compared with 41% in the Adelaide hills, and 27% in the Adelaide plains…
In addition to lead, the study detected zinc, cadmium, and copper in a few samples that exceeded the ADWG limits. Zinc was above the ADWG of 3.0 ppm in 53 (14.5%) samples. As with lead, the number of samples that exceeded the zinc ADWG limits was highest in the Adelaide foothills, and lowest in the Adelaide plains (Figure 2). It should be noted that the zinc and copper guidelines are guidelines for aesthetic reasons and not health based guidelines [18]. Cadmium and copper were also detected in a few samples. Cadmium was detected in 19 samples (5.2%) above the guideline of 0.002 ppm. The detection of copper above the ADWG of 2.0 ppm was limited to eight samples (2.1% of samples) that were from the same tank located in the Adelaide hills. The concentration of copper detected in the 8 samples ranged from 2.69 ppm to 3.47 ppm. The tank was plumbed-in and a filter installed, and the water used as drinking water…
Lead was the metal of greatest concern detected in rainwater in the Adelaide region above the
ADWG. The presence of lead in rainwater at concentrations above NHMRC guidelines is supported by previous studies…This study found that the concentration of lead in Adelaide rainwater ranged from <0.01 ppm (limit of detection) to 3.24 ppm, which is consistent with studies of other urban areas in Australia…
In Adelaide, it is not clear where the lead found in rainwater samples comes from, although
the relationship detected between lead and both roof material and geographic region might provide some clues. It is possible that the lead comes from the roof material, although lead as a component of galvanized or coated metal roofs is not regularly reported. The lead might be environmental….Zinc was higher in samples collected in the Adelaide hills and foothills, which are also those areas that have higher numbers of galvanized roofing. It is possible that lead and zinc found in rainwater could be linked to a combined corrosive action by solar radiation, wind, weathering, and pollution on rooftop structure materials….
Cadmium and copper detection above the ADWG was limited to a few samples collected in the
Adelaide hills. Copper was detected in samples collected from plumbed-in tanks, and the water used as a source of drinking water. Copper was the only metal that was influenced by the water pH and copper was only detected in those samples that had a pH 6.5 and is likely to be a result of corrosion of pipes. Acidic rainwater can result in increased corrosion and dissolve metals on tanks and roof materials structures, and on pipes, structure materials, and tank fittings [18,43]. Such water would be corrosive to copper and lead [44]. Another possible source of copper might be copper-chromium-arsenate (CCA)-treated timber. It should be noted that the Adelaide hills region was affected by extensive bushfires in January 2015 that caused damages to building structures, livestock, and to vineyard farms [45,46]. Few tanks had elevated levels of cadmium, and only in samples from the Adelaide hills. It is not clear where this cadmium might come from, although studies have reported that cadmium as a zinc impurity occurs in substantial amounts in galvanised structures [47].
This study indicates that lead was the metal detected in samples above the ADWG most often.
Of 53 tanks surveyed, lead was detected in 47 tanks above the ADWG, in at least one sampling event. Zinc, cadmium, and copper were detected in fewer samples, predominantly in the Adelaide hills and foothills. Lead and zinc in rainwater content was consistent with roof materials and geographic area, although it was not possible to determine which of these effects was the primary contributor, as roof material in the Adelaide hills and Adelaide foothills are primarily, or solely, galvanised metal.”
Lead, Zinc, Copper, and Cadmium Content of Water from South Australian Rainwater Tanks
Chirhakarhula E. Chubaka ID , Harriet Whiley ID , John W. Edwards and Kirstin E. Ross
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1551; doi:10.3390/ijerph15071551
Lead
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Cadmium
ADWG Cadmium Guideline. 0.002mg/L
The primary route of exposure of cadmium is via contaminated water or food. Fertiliser can be a source of excessive cadmium as can rainwater tanks. It has been linked to cancer, lung disorders, kidney disease and autoimmune disease.
Copper
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L. Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
Zinc
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
2015/16: Adelaide “Foothills” (South Australia) – Lead
Higher lead levels were detected most often in the Adelaide foothills. In that area, 51% of samples contained lead above the ADWG, compared with 41% in the Adelaide hills, and 27% in the Adelaide plains…
In addition to lead, the study detected zinc, cadmium, and copper in a few samples that exceeded the ADWG limits. Zinc was above the ADWG of 3.0 ppm in 53 (14.5%) samples. As with lead, the number of samples that exceeded the zinc ADWG limits was highest in the Adelaide foothills, and lowest in the Adelaide plains (Figure 2). It should be noted that the zinc and copper guidelines are guidelines for aesthetic reasons and not health based guidelines [18]. Cadmium and copper were also detected in a few samples. Cadmium was detected in 19 samples (5.2%) above the guideline of 0.002 ppm. The detection of copper above the ADWG of 2.0 ppm was limited to eight samples (2.1% of samples) that were from the same tank located in the Adelaide hills. The concentration of copper detected in the 8 samples ranged from 2.69 ppm to 3.47 ppm. The tank was plumbed-in and a filter installed, and the water used as drinking water…
Lead was the metal of greatest concern detected in rainwater in the Adelaide region above the
ADWG. The presence of lead in rainwater at concentrations above NHMRC guidelines is supported by previous studies…This study found that the concentration of lead in Adelaide rainwater ranged from <0.01 ppm (limit of detection) to 3.24 ppm, which is consistent with studies of other urban areas in Australia…
In Adelaide, it is not clear where the lead found in rainwater samples comes from, although
the relationship detected between lead and both roof material and geographic region might provide some clues. It is possible that the lead comes from the roof material, although lead as a component of galvanized or coated metal roofs is not regularly reported. The lead might be environmental….Zinc was higher in samples collected in the Adelaide hills and foothills, which are also those areas that have higher numbers of galvanized roofing. It is possible that lead and zinc found in rainwater could be linked to a combined corrosive action by solar radiation, wind, weathering, and pollution on rooftop structure materials….
This study indicates that lead was the metal detected in samples above the ADWG most often.
Of 53 tanks surveyed, lead was detected in 47 tanks above the ADWG, in at least one sampling event. Zinc, cadmium, and copper were detected in fewer samples, predominantly in the Adelaide hills and foothills. Lead and zinc in rainwater content was consistent with roof materials and geographic area, although it was not possible to determine which of these effects was the primary contributor, as roof material in the Adelaide hills and Adelaide foothills are primarily, or solely, galvanised metal.”
Lead, Zinc, Copper, and Cadmium Content of Water from South Australian Rainwater Tanks
Chirhakarhula E. Chubaka ID , Harriet Whiley ID , John W. Edwards and Kirstin E. Ross
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1551; doi:10.3390/ijerph15071551
Lead
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Copper
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L. Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
Zinc
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
2016/17 Wandering (Western Australia) Iron 0.66mg/L (max), 0.37mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2016/17 Wagin (Western Australia) Iron 0.3mg/L (max), 0.2mg/L (mean)
2018/19: Wagin (Western Australia) Iron 0.3mg/L (max), 0.22mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2014/15 Seaview Park (Western Australia) Hardness 200mg/L (max), 193mg/L (mean)
2015/16 Seaview Park (Western Australia) Hardness 200mg/L (max), 190mg/L (mean)
2016/17 Seaview Park (Western Australia) Hardness 200mg/L (max), 193mg/L (mean)
2017/18 Seaview Park (Western Australia) Hardness 210mg/L (max), 196mg/L (mean)
2018/19: Seaview Park (Western Australia) Hardness 200mg/L (max), 198mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Seaview Park (Western Australia) Hardness 200mg/L (max), 188mg/L (mean)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2016/17 Manjimup (Western Australia) Iron 0.68mg/L (max), 0.36mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2014/15 Lake Grace (Western Australia) pH 8.66 (av)
2015/16 Lake Grace (Western Australia) pH 8.7 (av)
2016/17 Lake Grace (Western Australia) pH 8.61 (av)
2017/18 Lake Grace (Western Australia) pH 8.54 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
2017/18 – Denmark (Western Australia) – Silica
2017/18 Denmark (Western Australia) Silica 110mg/L (max), 99.8mg/L (mean) (listed as Silicon in Water Corporation Water Quality Report 2017-18)
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
2014/15 – Denmark (Western Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Carnarvon – (Western Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
2009/10: Beacon (Western Australia) – Iron 0.48mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
2015/16 Allanson (Western Australia) 1 sample with Thermophilic Naegleria
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
17/1/19: Strathfieldsaye (Victoria) – Lead 0.033mg/L (max).
A sample, collected from the Strathfieldsaye WSL as part of Coliban Water’s sampling program, had an elevated level of lead (0.033mg/L), which exceeded the health-based guideline value
for lead (0.01mg/L) in the ADWG. As a part of the investigation, the condition of the sample point was visually inspected to determine whether the sample point assembly was likely to be the cause, as lead leaching from the brass fittings in the assembly is the common cause of isolated elevated lead results reported for the drinking water samples.
The visual inspection showed no signs of corrosion, but found that the water supply connection to the property had been disconnected. As per the assessment of the relevant water quality data and findings from the site inspection, the probable cause of the one off elevated lead result was a combination of stagnation of water in the service line and the inadequate flushing of the service line prior to the collection of the sample.
Water samples were collected from the Strathfieldsaye water distribution network including the location, where elevated lead
result was reported, for testing of relevant water quality parameters.
The lead results for the follow-up tests were well below the health based guideline value in the
ADWG, indicating that there were no long-term, systemic issues related to lead in Strathfieldsaye. The sample point was retired
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
People have been warned not to use water from the Campaspe River downstream of Kyneton for stock, domestic or food crops, after low-quality water was released without the approval of the Environment Protection Authority.
Coliban Water began releasing treated industrial waste water from its Kyneton Water Reclamation Plant into the Campaspe River on Thursday.
The EPA will investigate the circumstances leading to the discharge.
Member for Eastern Victoria Jeff Bourman raised the issue in parliament on Thursday.
Coliban Water said it planned to release up to four megalitres of C Class water – treated industrial waste – into the Campaspe per day.
This does not comply with its licence.
The EPA granted Coliban Water a licence exemption for an emergency release of Class B treated water – from domestic use – from the reclamation plant last week.
Executive general manager water quality David Sheehan said this discharge was necessary to stop the onsite storage lagoons from overflowing, causing them to fail.
In April Coliban Water told the Bendigo Advertiser it had no plans to discharge treated water straight into the Campaspe River in 2019.
Mr Sheehan said Coliban Water had expected higher streamflows, which would allow it to discharge Class B water, and move Class C water around on site.
Huntly Barton, who farms land on the Campaspe to the north of Kyneton, said it was a “disgrace” that unlicensed discharges had continued for so long.
Coliban Water has discharged water outside its licence into Snipes Creek five times in the past 12 years, in 2007, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2016.
It has discharged water into the Campaspe River in 2013, 2015 and 2018. In 2016 and 2018 Coliban Water discharged treated water of a diminished quality into the Campaspe.
Mr Barton relies on water for household and stock use from a natural hole on his land. He stocked up on safe water from his domestic use and stock when warned of the Class C release.
He has stored water for domestic use for about a month, and for his stock for about two weeks. Mr Barton said he would need to put a bore in within the fortnight unless there was significant rainfall.
“I’ve got this magnificent natural hole, which is reputed to be the second biggest natural hole this side of Eppalock, and we’ve pumped out of it for the last 50 years and for the last five years our water has been degraded,” Mr Barton said.
Associate Professor in the Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution at LaTrobe University Ewen Silvester said Class C water generally had a higher level of E. coli remaining than higher grade treated water.
Releases of wastewater into rivers could change the nature of the organisms that live there, and change the biological structure of the waterway, Associate Professor Silvester said.
This would typically affect invertebrates, small insects and larvae first, he said.
Associate Professor Silvester said rivers normally recovered from such releases, and it would only affect wildlife or fish in extreme cases.
Coliban Water said it had initiated extra water quality monitoring of the discharge and the Campaspe River.
EPA North West Regional Manager Scott Pigdon said the discharge had implications over a long stretch of the river.
“It is important the community is made aware of potential health issues it could create. EPA will monitor water quality and expects Coliban to do the same and make the results available to the community,” Dr Pigdon said.
Mr Bourman said he had raised the frequent unlicensed discharges in parliament after being contacted by a concerned farmer.
He said the water treatment plant needed to be upgraded to cope with increased growth of population and industry.
Coliban Water has budgeted to deliver lagoon compliance works by 2021-22.
“We need something better than just fencing off the river and saying, ‘You can’t use it for up to four years’, particularly in a period of drought or low rainfall. It’s not really practical,” Mr Bourman said.
“It’s a government body, Coliban Water, that’s doing this, and I think the government needs to get onto it a lot quicker than it is.”
Minister for Water Lisa Neville said Coliban Water had worked with the major trade waste customer in the area to install infrastructure to store and dispose of treated wastewater from the Kyneton plant via irrigation, expected to be complete by March 2020.
Ms Neville said Coliban Water was providing an upgrade to its treatment plant to improve the treatment processes to provide recycled water to this customer for irrigation.
Goulburn-Murray Water (GMW) is warning customers and the public to avoid direct contact with water in Lake Eppalock after monitoring detected high levels of blue‑green algae.
Warning signs will be positioned at major recreational areas around Lake Eppalock and will remain in place while high levels of blue-green algae are present. Lake Eppalock will not be closed to the public.
Visitors to the lake can still sightsee and enjoy other activities at Lake Eppalock that do not involve direct contact with the water.
Blue-green algae occur naturally in waterbodies. They contain toxins that are harmful to humans and animals. Characteristic signs of algae contact are skin rashes or itchiness; sore eyes, ears and nose; or if swallowed, nausea or vomiting.
GMW recommends:
People and pets avoid contact with the water.
People who come into contact with affected water should wash affected skin immediately in clean cold water.
Seeking an alternative water supply for stock and pets where possible.
Do not use affected water for cooking, drinking, washing or showering. Boiling the affected water will not make it safe for these purposes.
Reading GMW’s fact sheet and other information on blue green algae at GMW’s blue-green algae webpage (https://www.g-mwater.com.au/news/bga) to be informed of the risks.
It is not possible to predict how long the algae will remain at high levels.
GMW is continuing to monitor the situation in Lake Eppalock.
Keep up to date with current blue-green algae warnings at https://www.g-mwater.com.au/news/bga or by ringing 1800 013 357 and selecting the option for blue-green algae information.
Water supplied by GMW is not suitable for human consumption without first being properly treated. Human consumption includes showering, bathing, washing, cooking, ice making and drinking.
For more information about blue-green algae and your health, visit health.vic.gov.au or phone NURSE-ON-CALL on 1300 60 60 24.
Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in detection of 1org/100mL of E.coli in the presence of 0.03mg/L monochloramine and 0.05mg/L total chlorine.
Actions – The tank was isolated from supply and spot-dosed with chlorine to return a residual of 1.4 mg/L free chlorine and 1.6mg/L total chlorine. The freshly chlorinated water was pumped into the reticulation system via pump station. Resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear of E.coli. The tank was inspected and some ingress was detected at the inspection hatch, which was repaired. This ingress is believed to be the root cause of the detection. Subsequently, in July 2015, major works to the roof were undertaken as a trial of new technology to provide a substantially more effective barrier to future potential rainwater ingress. The solution involves use of advanced polymers to seal between each sheet on the roof.
Shepherds Lane Tank, 12 November 2014 (Sunbury)
Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in detection of 2org/100mL of E.coli in the presence of 0.14mg/L monochloramine and 0.22mg/L total chlorine.
Actions – The tank was isolated from supply and partly drained for spot-dosing with chlorine to return a residual of 0.32mg/L monochlorine and 0.6mg/L total chlorine. The freshly chlorinated water was pumped into the reticulation system via pump station. The sample tap was disinfected and flushed, and the tank was inspected which showed no signs of entry by contaminates. Resampling was conducted for three
consecutive days with all results clear of E.coli. The root cause was believed to be rainwater ingress through the roof. Subsequently, in July 2015, major works to the roof were undertaken trialling new technology to
provide a substantially more effective barrier to future potential rainwater ingress. The solution involves use of
advanced polymers to seal between each sheet on the roof.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in detection of 4org/100mL of E.coli in the presence of good chlorine residuals throughout the reticulation system.
Actions – There were no issues observed on SCADA for the treatment plant during this incident. Flushing of the main at the affected sentinel sampling site was performed, and resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear of E.coli. A root cause was not able to be established.
Romsey Tank A, 26 October 2014 (Romsey)
Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in detection of 9org/100mL of E.coli in the presence of 0.65mg/L monochloramine and 0.88mg/L total chlorine. Actions – The tank was isolated from supply and resampled on three consecutive days to confirm clean samples prior
to return to supply. The chloramination contact time was examined and found to be adequate for disinfection purposes. The tank integrity was assessed and some ingress was detected after a recent wet weather event.
The root cause was suspected to be either an issue with the integrity of the sample collected (false-positive) or minor ingress of rainwater through the roof. Works to improve tank roof integrity – following the trial of new technology discussed earlier – is planned to commence across tanks in 2015/16.
E.coli detection at Romsey Water Filtration Plant Tank B, 10 April 2017 (Romsey)
Issue – During storm activity on 8 April 2017, Tank B at the Romsey Water Filtration Plant (picture below) experienced a small volume of rainwater intrusion. This resulted in a low-level E.coli detection (1 org/100ml), in the routine sample taken on 10 April 2017. There were no E.coli detections in the downstream network on the day of reporting, indicating the chloramine residual was efficiently protecting the network and the contamination was isolated to the tank.
Resampling was undertaken on the day of detection to verify the result and there was no E.coli detected in the tank or the downstream network. DHHS was notified on the day of the detection in accordance with the requirements of Section 18.
Actions – After resampling on the day of detection, some minor repairs were made to the tank roof and hatch as a result of storm damage and where rain water intrusion had occurred.
Outcome – The tank was reviewed as part of the Drinking Water Tank Integrity Program with appropriate work scheduled for 2017/18 based on priority. The tank is audited yearly as part of the HACCP system.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in detection of 1org/100mL of E.coli in the presence of <0.05mg/L free chlorine and 0.17mg/L total chlorine.
Actions – The tank was isolated from supply and spot-dosed with chlorine to return a residual of 0.8mg/L free chlorine and 1.1mg/L total chlorine. The reticulation system was flushed to then draw freshly chlorinated water from the tank via pump station. Resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear of E.coli. The root cause was suspected to be an issue with the integrity of the sample collected (false-positive) as it was collected during a wet weather event. A possible alternative root cause is minor ingress of rainwater through the roof. Works to improve tank roof integrity following the trial of new technology is planned to commence across tanks in 2015/16.
South Gisborne Tank, 4 February 2016 (Gisborne)
Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in a detection of 3org/100ml of E.coli in the presence of 0.10mg/L total chlorine. Actions – The tank was isolated from supply and spotdosed with chlorine to return a residual of 0.60mg/L total chlorine. The freshly chlorinated water was pumped into the reticulation system via pump station. Resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear of E.coli. The reported routine result was declared as a false positive. The tank was inspected and some ingress at the inspection hatch was suspected to be the root cause, however resampling did demonstrate no contaminated water was supplied to customers. Outcome – During early 2016, the tank was assessed by external consultants for refurbishment and a booster chlorinator will be installed in 2016.
Gisborne South tank, Gisborne (November 2017)
Issue – A routine sample from the South Gisborne tank in November 2017 reported a result of 1org/100ml E.coli (SDWR limit is 0orgs/100ml E.coli ).
Actions – The investigation showed the tank at the time of sampling had a good chlorine residual present and there were no downstream reports of E.coli on the same day of sampling at the tank. Resampling at the tank was performed on the day of reporting the initial exceedance, and the tank roof, hatch and sample tap were examined. The investigation identified the sample was likely contaminated by dust entering the bottle as it was filled. Based on the resample at the same location and all other network samples taken on the same day as the exceedance, it was found that the initial sample was not representative of water supplied to customers at the time
of sampling. Outcome – the tank has a booster chlorination system on site to maintain a good chlorine residual in the tank. Investigation determined ongoing maintenance of this system and regular inspections of the tank were recommended.
Gisborne Road Tank, Gisborne (March 2019)
Issue – A routine sample from the Gisborne Road Tank on 26 March 2019 reported a result of 2org/100ml E.coli (SDWR limit is 0orgs/100ml E.coli).
Actions – The investigation showed the tank at the time of sampling had a low chlorine residual present, and there was one downstream network report of 1org/100ml E.coli on the day of resampling on 27 March 2019 at the tank. Due to the verified report of water contamination, the issue was addressed in accordance with Section 18 Safe Drinking Water Act 2003.
Outcome – the tank has as upstream booster chlorination system to maintain a good chlorine residual in the tank. Investigation determined the importance of ongoing maintenance of this system and regular inspections of the tank and booster chlorination system were recommended.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Dodemaide Circuit Tank,12 January 2015 (Melton South)
Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in detection of 1org/100mL of E.coli in the presence of <0.05mg/L free chlorine and 0.08mg/L total chlorine.
Actions – The tank was isolated from supply and spot-dosed with chlorine to return a residual of 1.2mg/L free chlorine and 1.4mg/L total chlorine. The reticulation system was flushed to then draw freshly chlorinated water from the tank via pump station. The root cause is suspected to be minor ingress of rainwater into the tank around the inspection hatch. Subsequent works were undertaken to improve the sealing of the hatch.
Resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear of E.coli. This tank will also be included in 2015/16 works to improve tank roof integrity following the trial of new technology.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
E.coli detection in Williams Rise Tank and network, 5 May 2016 (Sunbury)
Williams Rise Tank, 5 May 2016 (Sunbury) Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in a detection of 0.5org/100ml of E.coli in the presence of 0.20mg/L total chlorine. Actions – The tank was isolated from supply and spotdosed with chlorine to return a residual of 0.42mg/L total chlorine. The freshly chlorinated water was pumped into the reticulation system via the pump station. Resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear of E.coli. The reported routine result was declared as a false positive. The tank was inspected and while some ingress at the inspection hatch may have been an issue, an error made by the external laboratory was suspected as the root cause. Outcome – In early 2016, the tank was assessed by external consultants for refurbishment and booster chlorinator to be installed in 2016/17.
E.coli detection in Williams Rise Tank and network, 23 November 2016 (Sunbury)
“Issue – During storm activity from 22-24 November 2016, the Williams Rise Tank in Sunbury experienced a small volume of rainwater intrusion. This resulted in a low-level E.coli detection (1 org/100ml), in the routine sample taken on 23 November. Resampling to verify the result was undertaken on the same day and confirmed the presence of both low-level E.coli (1 org/100ml) and Faecal Streptococci (3 orgs/100ml) – both in the tank and at one location downstream in the Williams Rise network.
The Williams Rise Tank supplies to an isolated part of the network near Sunbury, 44 properties in total. DHHS was notified on the day of the reported detection in accordance with the requirements of Section 18.
Actions – After resampling on the day of the detection, the tank and network were spot dosed with chlorine to disinfect the water supply. Sampling on the following two days verified that the tank and network had no further contamination present and minor repairs were made to the tank roof and hatch as a result of storm damage.
Outcome – The tank was reviewed as part of the Drinking Water Tank Integrity Program with appropriate work scheduled for 2017/18, based on priority.
A permanent chlorinator system was installed early 2017 to maintain adequate chlorine levels. The tank is audited yearly as part of the HACCP system.” Western Water
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in a detection of 1org/100ml of E.coli in the presence of 0.09mg/L total chlorine. Actions – The tank was offline at the time, and not supplying water into the reticulation network. The tank was kept offline for the entire week.
Resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear of E.coli. The reported routine result was declared as a false positive. The tank was inspected and laboratory and/or sampler error was suspected as the root cause. When the tank was brought back online, spot-dosing and additional sampling of the water was performed prior to connection to the reticulation network. Outcome – During early 2016, the tank was assessed by external consultants for refurbishment and to have a booster chlorinator installed in 2016/17.” Western Water
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2018/19: Pykes Creek Reservoir (Victoria) – E.coli
“Pykes Creek Reservoir – Detection of elevated E.coli levels) The presence of elevated E.coli levels in Pykes Creek Reservoir was detected in February and April of 2018 during routine monitoring by Western Water. After significant on-site investigation by SRW, the cause of the elevated E.coli levels was not apparent. The issue was referred to external experts and agencies during the detection period to assist in locating and addressing the source of the issue.
During the incident:
as per SRW’s Memorandum of Understanding with Western Water, SRW continued to receive and share water quality data with Western Water over the course of the incidents • additional water quality sampling and testing was undertaken by SRW and Western Water to monitorthe situation • the storage was closed for public recreation during elevated E.coli levels, and re-opened when testing confirmed a return to safe levels • specialist testing was undertaken to better understand potential contamination sources • industry professionals/academics were engaged to provide advice on the issue • the issue was reported to all relevant agencies i.e. DHHS, and regular updates were provided to internal and external stakeholders, and • Western Water’s water treatment plant continued to successfully treat and supply drinking water to Myrniong for the duration of the event. Evidence gathered during the event indicated a strong possibility the E.coli in Pykes Creek Reservoir was a ‘natural’ bloom. SRW is convening a learning session with industry, regulators and academic experts to discuss future management of ‘natural’ E.coli blooms.
2018/19: Pykes Creek Reservoir (Victoria) – E.coli
Pykes Creek Reservoir – Detection of elevated E.coli levels (December 2018 and February 2019)
High E.coli levels in Pykes Creek Reservoir were detected between 31 December 2018 and 11 February 2019 during routine monitoring. After significant on-site investigation by Southern Rural Water (SRW) and genome sequence testing undertaken by the Australian Water Quality Centre (AWQC), the cause of the high E.coli levels was determined to be a bloom of an environmental strain of E.coli. Though unconfirmed, it is very likely that a similar event caused the high E.coli levels at Pykes Creek during the 2017–18 Financial Year.
During the incident: • as per SRW’s Memorandum of Understanding with Western Water, SRW continued to receive and share water quality data with Western Water over the course of the incidents • additional water quality sampling and testing was undertaken by SRW and Western Water to monitor the situation • the storage was closed for public recreation during high E.coli levels, and re-opened when testing confirmed a return to levels considered safe for recreational use • AWQC was engaged to undertake genome testing to identify the strain of E.coli • the issue was reported to all relevant agencies such as the DHHS, EPA & DELWP, and regular updates were provided to internal and external stakeholders, and • Western Water’s water treatment plant located at Pykes Creek continued to successfully treat and supply drinking water to the township of Myrniong for the duration of the event. Following the incident, SRW convened a workshop with industry, regulators and experts to discuss the issue of environmental E.coli, and ways to manage future incidents. SRW also participated in research undertaken by Water Research Australia that has resulted in a guidance document on managing environmental E.coli incidents from a drinking water and treatment perspective. Current research indicates that environmental E.coli strains are non-pathogenic, and they occur without fecal contamination. Regardless, environmental E.coli has been added to SRW’s risk management plans, and SRWare developing a procedure for the identification and management of environmental E.coli incidents from both a drinking and recreational water perspective.” Western Water
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2016/18: “Trihalomethane investigation at Rosslynne WFP
Rosslynne Reservoir refilled quickly during June to September 2016 which resulted in the water quality in the reservoir changing – particularly in organic type. The type of organics in the reservoir were difficult to remove through the existing treatment process. Because of chlorination used for disinfection at the plant, there were elevated levels of disinfection by-products namely Trihalomethanes. Extensive investigation of the organics and quantities of Trihalomethane produced at the plant determined the issue is likely to persist for many years and the removal of organic type is a costly activity. The investigation included review of other water agencies in America and Europe to identify alternative technology. The technology most suitable for the treatment of Trihalomethanes is a PAXTM system, using tank mixing and aeration to release the volatile compounds from the treated water to tank air space, and venting the air to external atmosphere. The project has undergone assessments of financial and environmental impacts, prior to design and installation during 2018.” Western Water
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“Trihalomethane detection in the Riddells Creek network, 1 February 2017 (Riddells Creek)
Issue – Refer to prior incident content for background discussion regarding Trihalomethane detection at McDonalds Tank.
The routine sample for the Riddells Creek network on 1 February 2017 detected Total Trihalomethanes of 0.28mg/L, above the ADWG limit (0.25mg/L). DHHS was notified on the day of the reported detection in accordance with the requirements of Section 18.
Actions – To prevent formation of Trihalomethanes, the treatment process at Rosslynne Water Filtration Plant was modified to reduce organics, and both the disinfection system at the plant and the Rosslynne network’s booster chlorination stations were also modified.
Outcome – External consultants conducted a review of the catchment, reservoir, plant and distribution network to assess the source of the organics and options to prevent future issues. Treatment options to prevent Trihalomethane formation during future refilling events included other types of chemical dosing and improvements to the disinfection system and storage tank management.” Western Water
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Darley – (Victoria) – Hardness
2015/16: Darley: Hardness 210mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Myrniong (Victoria) Iron
2018/19: Myrniong – Iron 0.42mg/L (max), 0.03mg/L (mean)
2022/23: Myrniong – Iron 0.41mg/L (max), 0.03mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Glenorchy – Tasmania – Turbidity
17/7/19: Glenorchy (Tasmania) Turbidity 6.18 NTU
21/8/19: Glenorchy (Tasmania) Turbidity 22.8 NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
Towns along the dwindling Barwon-Darling River system, in the state’s parched north-west, hope that mobile desalination plants will provide relief from brackish drinking water as the drought tightens its grip.
Some locals in the small outback towns of Brewarrina, Bourke and Walgett have resorted to using bottled water as their main source of drinking water, despite assurances from health authorities that the tap water, though extremely salty, is safe to drink.
Brewarrina, which sources its water supply from a weir on the Barwon River, will on Tuesday become the first of the three towns to switch on a desalination plant, which the council has borrowed from Tenterfield Council, more than 600 kilometres away.
Mayor Phillip O’Connor said the town’s raw water supply was purified at the local treatment plant, but this process could not remove the high sodium content that resulted from the lack of inflow into the river system.
“The longer the river doesn’t run, the saltier the water gets. The water is drinkable but it has got a bad taste to it,” Cr O’Connor said.
The mobile plant, which was originally donated to Tenterfield council by charity Rural Aid, will filter the water from the treatment plant through a process of reverse osmosis. It has the capacity to provide up to 70,000 litres of drinking water a day.
However, the plant will not connect directly to Brewarrina’s water supply, and will instead function as a refilling station, located in the town’s Visitor Centre car park, where residents can bring containers and bottles to fill up and take back to their homes.
The Berejiklian government is spending $10 million to install similar desalination plants in Bourke and Walgett, but these will be attached to the towns’ water supplies, meaning residents will be able to access the water directly from their taps.
Both towns are forced to rely on emergency bore water when their river supplies run low or cease, but testing has revealed higher sodium levels than those specified in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines on aesthetic (taste) grounds.
Walgett, on the junction of the Namoi and Barwon rivers, has been surviving on emergency bore water for much of the plast three years. Bourke’s supply, which is drawn from a weir on the Darling River, was boosted by 100 millimetres of rain in November, but without further replenishment it will be forced to switch to bore water in the coming months.
Bourke Shire Council general manager Ross Earl said the plant would have the capacity to generate as much as one megalitre of water a day, sufficient for the demands of Bourke’s 1900 residents.
That will be enough water to look after Bourke’s needs,” Mr Earl said. “All houses will be connected to the desalination supply.”
NSW Water Minister Melinda Pavey said the government was also considering reverse osmosis plants for coastal communities, including Forster on the state’s Mid North Coast.
“The recent rain has improved both water quality and supply for the coast, however we remain on standby should this change,” Ms Pavey said.
High E.coli levels have been found in the supply at times creating a serious health risk if the water was ingested indirectly as may occur during teeth cleaning or showering. In addition to a number of parameters (total dissolved solids, sodium, chloride) exceeding aesthetic Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG), sulphate, arsenic and selenium exceed health guidelines (SA Water,2005a, p. 13).
2018 March – Boundary Rd Reservoir Dakabin (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
Incident Description: There were two detections of high THM’s from routine samples taken on 6/3/2018. The two locations were the Boundary Rd 32ML Reservoir Dakabin (PN02RE) and Koala Cl North Lakes (PN19DS) with respective results of 0.33mg/L and 0.34mg/L.
Corrective & Preventative Actions: Both sites were supplied with water produced from the Petrie WTP, which through the deterioration of the WTP recorded higher levels of total organic carbon leaving the plant. The Petrie WTP has been decommissioned and the Pine North scheme is now supplied water through the Southern NPI, which will decrease the risk of THM formation in this area.
Follow up sample results: Follow up samples taken on the 23/3/2018 with the two affected sites recording results of 0.9mg/L and 0.99mg/L respectively.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
12 March 2018 – Little Mountain (Queensland) – E.coli
Incident Description: There was an E. coli detection from a routine sample taken on 12/3/2018 at Raintree Blvd, Little Mountain from sample tap CL12DS. The result was 1mpn/100ml.
Corrective & Preventative Actions: Localised reactive flushing of the supply main and the affected sample tap. Sampling observations were reviewed along with weather conditions on the day of the detection. It was identified that the sample tap is located under tree foliage and it had been raining prior to the sample being taken. A review of the systems gave no reason to suggest that network integrity had been compromised at the time of sampling.
Follow up sample results: A follow up sample was taken on the same day and returned a result of <1mpn/100ml.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: There was an E. coli detection from a routine sample taken on 26/02/2018 at Pacific Blvd, Buddina from sample tap CL17DS. The result was 1mpn/100ml.
Corrective & Preventative Actions: Localised flushing was undertaken to draw chlorine residuals through the affected area. Further actions to increase chlorine residuals in the network included chlorine tablet dosing at the Pt Cartwright Reservoir, and an increase in water supply from the NPI through the Wurtulla PRV.
A review of the chlorine levels in the area showed that the affected sample tap experienced variable levels of chlorine leading up to the event. A change in source water in the Caloundra scheme contributed to issues with maintaining a satisfactory level of disinfectant to the extremities of the network. An upgrade of the chlorine dosing facility is now planned for this area of the network.
Follow up sample results: Follow up sample was taken 28/2/2018 and returned a result of <1mpn/100ml E. coli.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2014/15: Peter Faust Dam (Queensland) – Free Chlorine 12mg/L (max), 2.4mg/L (mean)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2014/15 – Peter Faust Dam (Queensland) – Turbidity
2014/15: Peter Faust Dam (Queensland) – Turbidity 7.9 NTU (max), 0.83 NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2017/18: Peter Faust Dam (Queensland) – pH (acidic)
2017/18: Two (2) instances where treated water pH exceeded the ADWG aesthetic minimum limit of 6.5.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2017/18 – Fairbairn Dam (Queensland) – Chlorine
2017/18: Three (3) instances where treated water total chlorine exceeded the DWQMP limit of 5 mg/L…
Fairbairn Dam WTP – Total Chlorine > 5 mg/L (14/5/2018)
Fairbairn Dam WTP experienced total chlorine levels exceeding 5 mg/L at the outlet of the treated water reservoir from the 7th to the 11th of May 2018. This resulted from a change in sodium hypochlorite batch from one which appears to have been at a reduced concentration, to a much stronger batch.
Sun Water Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2017-18
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Fairbairn Dam (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2017/18: Seven (7) instances where pH was above the aesthetic limit of 8.5
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2017/18: Burdekin Falls Dam (Queensland) Eight (8) instances where treated water turbidity exceeded the DWQMP aesthetic limit of 5 NTU.
31/7/2017 – Burdekin Falls Dam WTP – Alternative potable water provided to customers due to operational issues resulting in high turbidity.
Burdekin Falls Dam WTP – Operational issues resulting in high turbidity (6/8/2017 – 18/8/2017)
On 6/8/2017 operational issues at the Burdekin Falls Dam WTP resulted in elevated turbidity being produced by the WTP. This situation was managed by providing bottled water to the SunWater staff and visitors to the caravan park. Water was not supplied to customers until the water quality was returned to acceptable levels and confirmed with microbiological samples. Supply from the WTP was resumed on 18/8/2017.
Sun Water Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2017-18
Australian Drinking Water Guideline 5NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2017 October – Taabinga Reservoir (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
Incident Description: DWI 7-491-68 Kingaroy Scheme
The 1st non-compliance was a detection of from a routine sample taken on 13/10/2017 at Taabinga Heights reservoir. THM of 280 ug/L was detected.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/in
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
On the 24/05/17 there was a Chlorine exceedance (8mg/L in Reticulation system) which occurred in the Eidsvold Water Scheme. The exceedance was reported to the regulator within 3 Hours of the event. Reservoir One was emptied and flushing of the reticulation was actioned whilst the township was fed off of Reservoir 2.
A subsequent investigation concluded: The primary cause was operator error. A chlorine analyser cell had been isolated for maintenance and had not been put back on line. This resulted in the chlorine pump dosing continually to try and reach its set point value.
Since the exceedance North Burnett Regional Council has installed an additional Chlorine Analyser (linked to SCADA) at Reservoir One to ensure compliance with ADWG 2011 limits.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
28/05/18 E. coli Minden The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 28/5/18 at SP703. 2MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
12/10/2017 E. coli Deebing Heights The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine
sample taken on 12/10/17 at SP416. 1MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
17/05/2018 E. coli Milne Hill The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 17/5/18 at SP186. 4MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected.
Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
6/03/2018 E. coli Green Hill The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 6/3/18 at SP66. 1MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2018: Detection of E. coli – Bracken Ridge (Queensland)
22/01/2018 E. coli Bracken Ridge. The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine
sample taken on 22/01/18 at SP370. 1MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2017/18: Detection of E. coli – Manly (Queensland)
27/12/2017 E. coli Manly The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine
sample taken on 27/12/17 at SP265. 5MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected.
Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
18/01/2018 E. coli Manly The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine
sample taken on 18/01/18 at SP265. 1MPN E. coli organisms per 100mL was detected.
Follow up samples exhibited no continued presence of E. coli.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Chlorate – Reported 28 November 2018. Alva Beach Rescue Sample Point – 0.86 mg/L. Alva Beach is a small community approximately 16km from Ayr. To aid the microbial safety of the water to residents, BSC boosts chlorination at a point approximately half way along the line to ensure a residual reaches the Alva Beach network. High disinfection by-products can sometimes be measured as a result of this. BSC is monitoring chlorate residuals on a quarterly basis. Follow Up Samples taken 16 April 2019 – 0.4 mg/L
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Detection of E. coli – Catalina Parade, Jacobs Well
6.1.1 Incident Description: On 13 August 2018, during routine verification monitoring a positive detection of E. coli (3 MPN/100mL) was recorded at a sample tap in the Pimpama Coomera WSD. The free chlorine residual was 0.74 mg/L.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: Immediately upon notification of the positive result incident management procedures were activated. Flushing of the reticulation network was undertaken. Inspections of the supply reservoir revealed no damage or potential ingress, and investigation of the re-chlorination station located about 1km upstream indicated no problems or issue. Subsequent retests at this site and additional sampling sites in the WSD yielded negative results for E. coli.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Biovolume of Dolichospermum sp. breached the minor incident threshold of 0.3 mm3/L. Potential toxin producing species. No toxins detected. Naturally occurring organism in
waterways. Sydney Water and NSW Health notified by email and in a meeting on 17th September as soon as the results were reported. Discussed supply configuration preferences with Sydney Water regarding balance of water quality risks.
September 2020: Lake Burragorang – Algae
Trace level of saxitoxin detected in Lake Burragoran. Detected at the surface, no impact on water supply for treatment. Naturally occurring organism in waterways. NSW Health and Sydney Water notified. Additional sampling and toxin testing of supply depth initiated.
Subsequent samples showed a decline in potential toxin producing algae.
December 2020: Lake Burragorang – Algae
Potential toxin producing algal biovolume ~ 0.244 mm3 in surface composite at DWA2. Detected at the surface, no impact on water supply for treatment. Naturally occurring organism in
waterways. Update sent to stakeholders, drawing from lower outlet where less algae present.
January 2021: Lake Burragorang – Algae
Trace detection of saxitoxin analogues ~ 0.7 ug/L at offtake depth within the lake. Detection well below health guidelines, no impact on water supply for treatment at this level. Naturally occurring organism in waterways. Results & updates notified to Sydney Water and NSW Health. Total toxins below limit of detection and no toxin producing algal cells in offtake depth.
‘Concerning’: Sydney’s water catchment faces rising loss to mining, contaminants
Coal mining in Sydney’s catchment is having a “cumulative and possibly accelerated” impact on water flows but its full effect is unknown because of a lack of monitoring.
The audit, which covers the 16,000-square-kilometre catchment that stretches from Lithgow in the Blue Mountains to near Cooma and stores as much as 2.6 million megalitres of water, found “reduced water availability” compared with the 2013 report.
It found mixed trends, with parts of the catchment improving but others worsening. Lake Burragorang – Sydney’s main reservoir sitting behind Warragamba Dam – was among areas with the poorest results for surface flows.
Water extraction by mining and other uses continue to increase, while wetlands appear to have deteriorated. There had also been “a significant increase” in areas affected by bushfire, the audit said.
“The audit found an emerging issue of unquantified loss of surface flows associated with the cumulative impacts of underground coal mining activities,” it said.
Peter Turner, mining projects science officer for the National Parks Association said the audit “paints a picture of a catchment under pressure and continuing to be damaged by coal mining”.
A spokesman for Energy Minister Don Harwin said the audit showed the city’s drinking water “has the highest possible quality rating in the world” and it was a top priority to maintain the standard.”[T]he government is looking closely at the independent audit and will ensure that whatever actions are required to protect our catchment are taken,” he said.
Awkward timing
The audit’s release comes at an awkward time for the government. The Supreme Court this month ruled invalid the approval for the extension of the Springvale coal mine because the mine pumps untreated waste into the Coxs River that flows into Lake Burragorang, accounting for about 80 per cent of Sydney’s water.
Springvale, though, is the sole supplier to the Mt Piper power station, which generates about one-sixth of NSW electricity. The government may need special legislation to nullify the Supreme Court’s decision and concerns about mining in the catchment raised by the audit may complicate its case.
Stuart Khan, an associate Professor in the School of Civil & Environmental Engineering at the University of NSW, said the trends revealed for Lake Burragorang were “very concerning”.
Electrical conductivity– which gauges how salty the water is – had been worsening in the lake for the past two decades, as had other water-quality parameters such as nitrogen and dissolved oxygen.
Rising nitrogen and falling dissolved oxygen levels would traditionally have been associated with sewage issues but, as the audit notes, plant upgrades had significantly reduced the burden from this source.
“Worsening salinity at a time when the lake is full points to long-term catchment decline,” Professor Khan said. “This means that the salt and nitrogen contamination reflects increasing emissions from other sources such as mining and agriculture.”
Sydney’s catchment suffered a major cyanobacterial bloom in 2007. “By allowing nitrogen concentrations to gradually increase, we are setting ourselves up for the risk of more large-scale bloom events in the future,” he said, adding more science “is urgently required” to understand the sources and develop effective controls.
‘Puzzling’ omission
As with previous audits, this report highlighted “inadequate” data and monitoring. Key datasets, such as those tracking native vegetation, had not been updated since 2013, it noted.
“The audit records the potential for mining to cause significant and serious groundwater loss” in the special areas that are intended to protect the core of the catchments for the reservoirs that supply Greater Sydney and the Illawarra, Dr Turner said.
That omission is “puzzling” since company reports already indicate some 29 to 40 million litres of water a day are entering mines in and around the Metropolitan and Woronora Special Areas, Dr Turner said.
“This corresponds to 10,585 to 14,600 million litres of water a year,” Dr Turner said. “This is a disturbingly large volume and is as much or more than some of the licence-restricted water extractions permitted in sub-catchments outside the special areas.”
The water inflows to the underground mines are caused by subsidence after the fossil fuel is extracted, leading to fissures that can divert water from aquifers or from surface rivers and swamplands.
“Mine inflows can’t be turned off with a tap,” Dr Turner said. “They continue until there’s no more water or until the mine fills and leaks its contaminated water.”
Even research, it seems, falls through the cracks.
Research recommended in the 2010 audit into the connectivity of surface and ground water that had been identified as underway three years later couldn’t be found.
“[N]o published results could be located either in the public domain or through communications with key personnel within DPI Water and WaterNSW,” the 2016 report said.
Surface water loss can also dry out endangered swampland, adding to the bushfire risks, the audit said.
“Such losses could be significant in dry and drought conditions,” it said. “The loss of surface water can also impact on bushfire severity, and thus the condition of upland swamps and their flora and fauna communities.”
‘Irresponsible’
Coal mining in the Schedule 1 Special Areas itself “makes nonsense of the legislated intent” of the protected areas, Dr Turner said, noting that water extraction is not permitted in the nationals parks that border the Metropolitan and Woronora regions.
“The National Parks are protected from water loss, but not the Special Areas, which are in effect Sydney’s most important public health asset, he said. Those areas are also high
conservation regions and “contain some of the few remaining areas of pristine bush in NSW”.
Greens NSW environment spokeswoman Mehreen Faruqi said it was “simply irresponsible” to continue to allow longwall coal mining in Sydney’s catchment.
“Streams nearby these mines have gone from gaining groundwater to now losing it, which is having significant impacts on their flows and environmental outcomes for wetlands,” Dr Faruqi said.
“It’s pretty disappointing that this audit was tabled with no explanation or notification to stakeholders. Surely issues such as drinking water which impacts everyone deserve more transparency,” she said
The next focus on water may come if the government attempts to pass legislation aimed at nullifying the Supreme Court’s decision on Springvale mine.
“The [State Environmental Planning Policy] was put in place for public health reasons, to ensure that the water supplied to the communities of Sydney and surrounds is safe,” Ms Higginson said.
“It would be hard to envisage a basis upon which a government would reverse standards and policies that were put in place for this reason.”
The track record of governments acting on the audits’ recommendations, such as for better monitoring, hasn’t been good, Dr Turner said.
“It’s very disappointing that the audit has to repeat or echo recommendations that have been made to the government, without evident effect or action, in reports its commissioned over at least the past decade, such as the 2014 NSW Chief Scientist’s report on catchment impacts and the 2007 report by Evans and McNally,” he said.
‘Shocking’: NSW government cops audit scolding over catchment inaction
The Berejiklian government ignored warnings by an auditor for two years that it in needed to address rising salinity at Sydney’s main reservoir, a delay the Labor opposition describes as “frankly shocking”.
As Fairfax Media reported last year, the triennial audit of Sydney’s water drinking catchment found salinity levels at Lake Burragorang had risen over a 20-year trend, and were twice the level of other catchments. Coal mining, a key source of those salts, was having a “cumulative and possibly accelerated” impact.
However, a report into pollution of the catchment, released by the Auditor-General last week, said despite the 2016 audit’s call for an investigation into the source and implication of the salinity in the basin behind Warragamba Dam, nothing had been done.
Of the three public authorities now responsible for water quality at Lake Burragorang, the Auditor-General recommended the NSW Environment Protection Authority review the impact of licensed activities on water quality and develop strategies to improve water quality by June 30, 2019.
The other two agencies are the Department of Planning and the Environment and WaterNSW.
NSW Environment Minister Gabrielle Upton said in a statement: “The EPA is the state’s lead protector of the environment and the Minister supports any findings that result in a better outcome.”
“The EPA has considered the Auditor-General’s report, has responded to all the findings and is in the process of implementing many of the recommendations.”
Chris Minns, Labor’s water spokesman, said government agencies had been bickering over taking responsibility “and we are still none the wiser as to who is responsible for this mess”.
“It is frankly shocking that the NSW government refused to lift a finger for two years after being warned about potential threats to Sydney’s primary water source.”
Justin Field, the Greens urban water spokesman, said the lack of an agency response to deteriorating water quality showed the government was “putting coal ahead of community health”.
“The increasing salinity in our major water supply will increase the cost of water treatment and that cost is being shifted from mine operators to the bills of Sydney resident,” he said. “That cost needs to be put back on the mines and no new mining approvals should be granted in the catchment.”
‘Serially ignored’
Peter Turner, the mining projects science officer at the National Parks Association, said concerns about the impacts of mining on water date back to at least the 2014 report of the NSW Chief Scientist.
“Successive governments have been repeatedly warned in various reports over more than a decade of the increasingly adverse impacts of mining on Sydney’s drinking water catchment,” Dr Turner said.
“No matter ministerial assurances of careful consideration, these reports and their recommendations have been serially ignored or shelved,” he said, adding that there was no reason to expect the soon-to-be released advice from the expert panel “would fare any better”.
While Lake Burragorang got most of the attention in the Auditor-General’s report, other mining-impacted reservoirs that supply southern Sydney, Wollongong and the Illawarra had been left “in the shadows”, Dr Turner said.
For its part, WaterNSW said reducing salinity at the catchment storages was consistent with its water-quality objectives.
“However, salinity levels are not problematic and do not currently impact on WaterNSW’s ability to meet water-quality guidelines,” an agency spokesman said.
Other EPA issues
While recommending the EPA take responsibility for addressing the issues at Lake Burragorang, the Auditor-General found the authority had a range of other shortcomings.
For instance, the report determined the EPA had “unreliable detection practices, and weaknesses in its governance approach, [limiting] its effectiveness to consistently apply regulatory action”.
As a result of its ineffective detection, “there is a risk that the EPA may not be applying regulatory actions for many breaches and non-compliances”, it said.
“The risk-based framework and over-reliance on self-reporting leaves our environment and in particular our drinking water vulnerable to pollution incidents that go unnoticed or are inadequately prosecuted and cleaned up,” Mr Field said.
Firefighters are working to contain the spread of fires that have burnt everything but a “small portion” of land surrounding Sydney’s major water catchment ahead of another heatwave next week.
On Boxing Day, more than 1400 firefighters took advantage of milder conditions by back-burning to slow the spread of the 70 fires still burning across the state.
Conditions are set to deteriorate over the weekend with temperatures forecast to soar to the mid-40s in parts of western Sydney by Tuesday.
Water bureaucrats have also been working “around the clock” to protect water supply assets from flames that came within kilometres of drought-depleted dams.
The Green Wattle Creek and Ruined Castle fires surrounding Lake Burragorang, which supplies about 80 per cent of Sydney’s water through Warragamba Dam, have burnt more than 223,000 hectares, nearly doubling in size in the past fortnight.
In early December, Rural Fire Service firefighters conducted strategic backburns around Warragamba as the Green Wattle Fire took hold on the eastern side of Lake Burragorang.
The lake and dam have now been almost completely encircled by bushfire, with only a “small portion” on the northern side of the lake currently untouched by fire, RFS spokesman Ben Shepherd said.
The impact of the spread of fires in the past two weeks affecting the Warragamba catchment had been “really extreme”, said Professor Stuart Khan, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of NSW.
“The majority of the perimeter of Lake Burragorang has been impacted, and Wollondilly and Coxs rivers, with significant quantities of ash flowing,” he said.
There were two risks to water supply, said Professor Khan, an expert on water contamination. The first was that fire would destroy pumping stations and damage pipes, which so far hadn’t happened, and the second was threat of a large downpour causing ash to run off and pollute the water supply.
Even before the fires, the lack of rain had meant organic material which could pollute water had been building up in greater concentrations. From previous experience and modelling, he said if there was a big downpour – in excess of 100mm to 200mm of rain, causing run off for the first time in two years – that could cause serious problems.
WaterNSW has since deployed floating booms and curtains across the Warragamba catchment to serve as a barrier to block ash from filtering into the untreated part of the water supply, while water quality scientists are monitoring the dam using sophisticated, real-time technology.
“The current priority is to protect against ash or debris being washed into the storage following a rain event,” the WaterNSW spokesman said.
Water Minister Melinda Pavey said the NSW water agencies had been “working around the clock to ensure that our towns have access to water.”
“Our assets across the state remain intact and are still supplying water to towns affected by these severe fires,” Ms Pavey said.
But Professor Khan said the combination of fires and drought had pushed water managers “out of their experience and comfort zone”.
A spokesman for WaterNSW said the fact there had been no significant damage to assets in the Blue Mountains and Warragamba Dam areas was a testament to the firefighting efforts of the RFS.
Bureau of Meteorology forecaster Jiwon Park said while there have been benign conditions over Christmas, a heatwave will bring temperatures in the 40s to parts of Sydney over the weekend before a southerly change hits the state early next week.
“Ahead of the southerly the temperatures will be rising,” he said.
Bureau of Meteorology duty forecaster Rose Barr told AAP some areas were forecast to reach “extreme heatwave conditions”.
“With the increasing heat and winds, the fire danger will worsen into the new week, with Monday and Tuesday most likely to be the most significant fire weather days,” she said.
Daily maximum temperatures in Penrith and Richmond are forecast to steadily climb to a high of 43 degrees by Tuesday, while Parramatta is forecast to reach 41 degrees that day.
Residents of one Aussie town may have been drinking poisoned water for decades, as white ants slowly eat their homes and the power flickers on and off.
Hundreds of Queenslanders living in a small town 1800km from Brisbane have potentially been consuming uranium in their water for decades.
While the 2011 census estimated 429 people lived in Dajarra, 150km south of Mt Isa, locals now estimate the population hovers between 70 and 90.
Once, it was the largest trucking depot in the world, processing thousands of heads of cattle a day from as far away as Western Australia. Now, many of the town’s homes are described as “unliveable”, half-eaten by white ants.
The town still operates on 3G, does not have a reliable power supply, and for months the residents have relied on a daily delivery of 120,000 litres of water from Mt Isa, after unsafe levels of uranium were found in the tap water.
When Cloncurry Shire Council first carried out testing in January 2021, four of council’s five bores supplying water to the town of Dajarra recorded uranium in levels significantly above the Australian drinking water guidelines threshold of 0.017mg/L.
Raw water at sites one and two had readings of 0.046mg/L, site three had a reading of 0.023mg/L, and site five a reading of 0.045mg/L.
According to a Queensland Health fact sheet issued to residents, uranium could cause “inflammation or kidney damage, particularly following exposures at high levels”.
The town has never had potable water, with residents instead buying bottled water, or boiling water out of either privately owned or council-owned bores before consumption.
While a treatment plant bought last year is designed to be effective in removing naturally occurring uranium from the raw water supply, continuing issues with the power supply to Dajarra and unexpectedly high water usage, believed to be caused by a leak, meant the plant could not meet the needs of the community.
Federal MP Bob Katter said Dajarra’s water issues were an example of small-town Australia “falling to pieces”.
“This is the emptying of middle Australia … No one could care less whether the water supply has gone out. That’s the microcosm of what is happening in all these towns across Australia,” he said.
The council spent the months after the concerning test results conducting inspections and maintenance on the treatment plant, and Cloncurry Shire Council’s new chief executive officer Philip Keirle said the most recent results suggested the plant achieved the “fully effective removal of uranium from the treated water supply”.
But Mr Katter questioned how long residents had been unknowingly exposed to uranium.
“Uranium doesn’t suddenly jump into your water supply … Either it’s been there all along and they haven’t picked it up, or their current advice is wrong,” Mr Katter said.
“These boreholes have been there for 20, 30 … maybe even 50 years. You don’t just suddenly get uranium contamination.
“We don’t know whether they have been incompetent before, or they’re being incompetent now, but it’s scary. Water is supposed to be monitored all the time.
“We are not in a third-world country … Why is Dajarra being treated like it is?”
Publican Richard “Rhino” Ryan said the town he had called home for 15 years was similar to “our old people in homes”.
“They’re sitting there waiting to die … That’s like Dajarra,” he said.
“There’s uranium in our water, they reacted but they aren’t proactive. They (council) wait until we whinge then they come in.
“I’d say the uranium has been there all along and we just haven’t been aware of it.
“Every time we make a complaint and say the water isn’t good enough, or something’s not working, they basically let us know that Dajarra costs them $1 million a year with very little return.”
Mr Ryan, who said he loved his “beautiful town”, questioned at what point the council stopped spending money on a town they were losing so much money on.
“Since 1987, the council has been running at a 900 per cent loss. They’re saying Dajarra costs them a million a year to run, and they get back less than $10,000 a year in rates,” Mr Ryan said.
“When does it become a point where council says, ‘Well, hang on … are we better off spending $1 million a year in the town of Cloncurry, and reallocating the 70 people to a place with more facilities, a better structure and lifestyle where they get more rates?’
“You can’t keep throwing money at nothing.”
Mr Keirle said council was committed to providing “efficient and effective services to Dajarra”, but that they had to be realistic.
“It’s always been understood that the water is bore water, it’s not potable water … That’s been the status quo for many years,” Mr Keirle said.
“Every drinking water supply scheme in Australia is required to do some form of treatment to the raw water supply, whether it’s sourced from rivers, bores or dams. It’s natural that the raw water supply will have various items that make it unfit for human consumption without some form of treatment.
“It just so happens one of the naturally occurring items that needs treating in Dajarra are low levels of uranium … low enough a simple reverse osmosis treatment plant is able to easily bring these above the ADWG thresholds.
“But for a water treatment system to work effectively, it needs a reliable power supply … And that is one thing Dajarra does not have.”
According to an Ergon Energy spokesman, Dajarra has experienced 19 power outages of “varying duration” since January 1, 2021.
“Ergon is currently working to repair damage to the network’s back-up generator in Dajarra,” the spokesman said.
“Ergon understands the council has installed stand-alone generators at their water plants.”
While council will continue to advise Dajarra residents not to drink the town’s bore water, as has been the “status quo” for decades, Mr Keirle is hopeful he can eventually transition the town onto the Australian drinking water supply scheme.
Four of five of this outback town’s bores are contaminated with uranium
A town in north-west Queensland has had four of its five bores shut down after unacceptable levels of uranium were found in the water.
Dajarra, 150 kilometres south of Mount Isa, has long had water supply issues but publican Richard Ryan said the uranium problem was new to him.
When the ABC contacted Mr Ryan yesterday, no-one from the council had told him the bores had been shut down or that uranium had been detected.
“Honestly, I’m still trying to take that in because that’s something that, I don’t know — people should have been informed of that fully, straight away,” he said.
“Everyone is under the impression that it’s E. coli.
The township does not have potable water that flows directly to homes and does not rely on the bores for drinking water.
Instead, residents can collect drinking water from a reverse osmosis treatment plant that was established in 2020.
Future uncertain
Cloncurry Shire Council acting chief executive Bruce Davidson said the contamination in the four bores was concerning.
“We have stopped using the four bores that had the uranium count that’s higher than acceptable, so the water that’s going into the people’s homes now is a mixture of water that’s treated through the osmosis plant,” he said.
“We’re shipping water from Cloncurry on a daily basis.
“The plant has been there for a period of time but it has never operated particularly successfully.
Mr Davidson said he did not know whether the four bores would be put into use.
“I mean, if they’re producing uranium and the plant isn’t sufficient to process uranium back into the reservoir, we’ll have to see if we can locate an alternative bore from another aquifer,” he said.
Power struggle
Mr Ryan said he put in his own bore three years ago, but constant power outages were also causing havoc in the town and to bore pumps.
“It makes you quite nervous when you’ve got an old pub and everything’s clicking in and out — you don’t want your switchboard to get hot.”
Mr Ryan said when the power went out the generator could not run the sewerage system or the pumps to get water.
He said he and his wife, Shelly Ryan, owned five blocks of land, including the Dajarra Hotel and the museum, and paid more than $10,000 a year in rates.
“I don’t use [municipal] water, I don’t see improvements,” he said.
Dajarra to receive potable water with new treatment plant
The small township of Dajarra will have access to safe drinking water when a new water treatment plant is installed in coming months.
Cloncurry Shire Council was successful in obtaining funding through the Works for Queensland program to build a $350,000 water treatment plant to to provide better water quality for residents in Dajarra.
Cloncurry Shire Council mayor Greg Campbell said the tender had been awarded to a specialist company in South Australia.
“We had to outsource for this project as we required a specialist for the reverse osmosis plant,” Cr Campbell said.
“This will be built to Dajarra’s specifications and transported and connected.
“Dajarra will then have unbelievable water.”
Cr Campbell said this upgrade was essential for the Dajarra community.
“Dajarra never had potable water and while it was chlorinated to clean the germs out it was still very hard and had other minerals in it,” he said.
“It wasn’t great water so we are providing a better service to a great little town.”
Cloncurry Shire Council are also upgrading a toilet block facility in town to facilitate both locals and traveling tourists.
The toilet block was jointly funded between Cloncurry Shire Council ($150,000) and the Works for Queensland ($10,000).
2007 Dajarra (Queensland)
2011: Delivering drinking water to Dajarra, North West Queensland Tim O’Rourke
Samples of the town supply in Dajarra, collected at the School and the Health Clinic in 2007, exceeded the ADWG for Chloride, Total Hardness, Sodium, and Total Dissolved Solids (as tested by Queensland Health). High values of these chemicals affect the taste or aesthetic quality of water.
Various samples show that the Dajarra town water is unpalatable; however, health-based guidelines are not proposed for each of these specific chemical characteristics. Although the ADWG proposes no health-based guideline value for sodium, it does warn that ‘Medical practitioners treating people with severe hypertension or congestive heart failure should be aware if the sodium concentration in the patient’s drinking water exceeds 20 mg/L.’ Sodium was measured at 209mg/L at the Health Clinic and 387 mg/L at the West End in Dajarra in 2007; see Table 5. The ADWG recognises the effects of high concentrations of these chemicals on water reticulation systems.
Dr Wright warns it is not just drinking unboiled water that can prove harmful. Even contact with skin can have devastating results. “Health authorities always warn us to limit physical contact with floodwater, particularly if you’re elderly, or have cuts and scratches,” he said.
When analysing water, his team looks for faecal coliform indicators. Their presence indicates there is warm-blooded animal waste in the supply. “I’ve tested a lot of water after floods and it’s just evil. We grab samples and test them in the lab the bacteria results just light up.”
Bacteria, viruses and parasites like giardia and cryptosporidium can enter the water supply after flooding. If people drink affected water without boiling it, Dr Wright warns you’re “spinning the chamber in the revolver”. “It’s absolutely Russian roulette.”
“The advice is boil the water, but you don’t just boil it like you’re making a cup of tea, you boil it and leave it on what they call a rolling boil,” he said. “So you hold the button down… for 30 seconds or so then let it cool down.”
Dr Wright warns it is not just drinking unboiled water that can prove harmful. Even contact with skin can have devastating results. “Health authorities always warn us to limit physical contact with floodwater, particularly if you’re elderly, or have cuts and scratches,” he said.
When analysing water, his team looks for faecal coliform indicators. Their presence indicates there is warm-blooded animal waste in the supply. “I’ve tested a lot of water after floods and it’s just evil. We grab samples and test them in the lab the bacteria results just light up.”
Bacteria, viruses and parasites like giardia and cryptosporidium can enter the water supply after flooding. If people drink affected water without boiling it, Dr Wright warns you’re “spinning the chamber in the revolver”. “It’s absolutely Russian roulette.”
“The advice is boil the water, but you don’t just boil it like you’re making a cup of tea, you boil it and leave it on what they call a rolling boil,” he said. “So you hold the button down… for 30 seconds or so then let it cool down.
In many small towns in Australia, councils are responsible for managing the upkeep of water and sewerage systems and combatting the impact of flooding can sometimes be beyond their ability.
“If you don’t travel much and you’re from a big city in Australia, drinking water straight from a tap is probably something you take for granted,” Dr Wright said. “But as soon as you go into a regional location, overseas, or to a developing country, we suddenly become aware of water problems.”
Nimbin residents face water restrictions despite flooding rain
The pipeline between Mulgum Creek and DE Williams Dam has become contaminated with sediment. Effective Chlorine disinfection cannot be assured for customers connected to the water supply between Weir and Dam. This boil water notice is effective between December 18th 2019 until further notice.
Incident Description
As part of Council’s routine verification monitoring program, E. coli was detected in a sample
collected on the 4th April 2017 from Brosnahan reservoir. The E. coli result was 1 MPN/100mL
with a total chlorine residual of 0.07mg/L. Investigations found that the most likely cause of the
E. coli was a result of contaminated flood water entering broken mains that fed this reservoir,
during the flooding caused from ex-Tropical Cyclone Debbie.
Corrective and Preventative Actions
Brosnahan Reservoir supplying the area was isolated and manually dosed with liquid sodium
hypochlorite with surrounding areas flushed. Additional sampling found no detection of E. coli in the other Logan East WQZ sampling sites.
In consultation with Metro South Public Health Unit and DEWS, a precautionary boil water
notice was issued and then lifted with the reservoir put back online, once consecutive sample
results indicated no E. coli present.
Preventative actions included maintaining chlorine residual in the reservoir until it is replaced
with supply pumps during 2017-18 FY CAPEX program. Improved prompt reporting of health
breaches and events that could cause public health concerns, such as submerged mains in
contaminated flood water, has also been implemented.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
E. coli was detected in a sample collected on the 23rd January 2017 from the Mundoolun
reservoir sample tap. The E. coli result was 5 MPN/100mL with a total chlorine residual of
0.11mg/L. Re-testing confirmed E. coli present however no E. coli was present in the
surrounding area.
Corrective and Preventative Actions
Mundoolun reservoir supplying the area was isolated, inspected and dosed with liquid sodium
hypochlorite and the surrounding network flushed. Repeat testing resulted in no E. coli present.
Roof gaps found during the inspection were sealed to prevent ingress.
In consultation with Metro South Public Health Unit and DEWS, the reservoir was put back
online and surrounding areas were flushed to draw chlorine residual throughout the network.
Long term preventative actions includes manually dosing the reservoir with liquid chlorine to
maintain effective chlorine residual until an auto-dosing facility is designed via the 2017-18 FY
CAPEX program with implementation to follow.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
One turbidity result was above ADWG in Tuncurry. Investigations and corrective actions included flushing and extra monitoring which revealed this was an isolated result that was rectified quickly.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2016/17 – Wingham – Reticulated Water Manning (New South Wales) – Copper 2.34mg/L (max), 0.267mg/L (average)
There was one occasion of copper above ADWG value in Wingham. The sampling site is located at a school and the sample was collected in January, towards the end of the school holidays. With little to no usage at the site for the previous six weeks, copper may have leached out of the pipe resulting in a higher level of copper than normally expected. There were no other elevated copper results detected across the system. After flushing and resampling, the copper result was back within ADWG. The school was notified and advised to flush the internal lines prior to students returning to school after the holidays. Following this, information will be provided to all schools within MidCoast Water supply systems before the end of the school year, advising flushing of internal lines after school holidays as a precaution.
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should
not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
1/7/15: Weipa (Queensland) – Lead 0.019mg/L (max).
High lead reading (ADWG guideline is ≤0.01 mg/L for taste threshold) was measured on one occasion in the Town Bores
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
4 exceedances in 41 tests. Incidences included: 17.0NTU (10/1/12), 320 NTU (16/2/12 and 11/3/15), and 270NTU (26/7/16).
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
The Queensland government was warned of critical infrastructure failures more than a year before lead was discovered in the tap water of Australia’s largest Aboriginal community.
Lead up to 12 times the safe level was detected in May in tap water at schools in Yarrabah, in far north Queensland, and levels above acceptable limits have been found in water at the town’s health services and in some homes.
Queensland Health said it suspected the contamination source to be corroded pipes or fittings that leached heavy metals into the water, and that the levels recorded in affected facilities were safe when taps were flushed for 30 seconds.
The ABC can reveal that the automatic pH system, which controlled the acidity of the town’s water supply, was broken for more than a year before the heavy metals were found.
Documents show the Yarrabah Aboriginal Shire Council reported the issues to the government regulator in July last year stating that, in hundreds of samples taken from different outlets around the town between January 2021 and April 2022, the water was so corrosive it was failing Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
In a statement, the council said it had been “rigorously pursuing support and funding from the state government since early 2022 for a water treatment plant upgrade [inclusive of pH correction]”.
Tropical Public Health Service director Richard Gair said, while the possibility of corrosive water contributing to lead leaching of fittings in public buildings and private dwellings in Yarrabah was “certainly a hypothesis that we were investigating”, conclusions had not yet been drawn.
“We can advise that lead shouldn’t be in the water, but it’s not the responsibility of the health service to repair the infrastructure,” Dr Gair said.
Yarrabah’s water supply comes from bores and is naturally acidic, or low in pH.
It’s safe to drink – but can be more likely to corrode pipes and causes metals to leach into the water.
A government spokesperson from the Department of Regional Development, Manufacturing and Water said a range of factors contributed to corrosion including pH and that works being carried out to automate would help.
They said the government was providing $1.25 million in funding to Yarrabah Aboriginal Shire Council to upgrade the water treatment plant, with a further $3.2 million dollars to “support water, wastewater, and solid waste projects”.
This funding was only announced after lead was detected in the water.
The Minister, Glenn Butcher, confirmed to the ABC during a visit to Yarrabah late last week that extra funding for critical works including the pH controller had now been provided.
“Obviously as things have changed, particularly with the levels that we’ve seen, it’s certainly highlighted now the importance of having to get back to an automated dosing system,” he said.
“As part of the response to what’s been happening in the community, we’ve now invested that $275,000 to make sure we get this system up and running.”
The ABC understands the automated pH system remained offline until this week.
The Education department has confirmed they are still providing bottled water to students and staff at the school.
Elevated levels detected in adults, children
Health authorities have confirmed around 250 people have been tested for lead levels in the community so far, and the ABC understands around 11 adults and children have shown elevated results.
The ABC understands only 18 children have been tested so far in a community of more than 1,800 children.
The Cairns and Hinterland Hospital and Health Service said in a communique to staff this week there was “no evidence that the consumable water is the cause” of the elevated results.
“Instead there are environmental and health explanations that are likely contributors to these results,” chief executive Leena Singh said.
Kaylene Jackson, an outreach worker at the Gurriny Yealamucka Health Service, said it had caught her off guard.
“Because we don’t know anything about, you know, lead poisoning or anything like that,” she said.
Ms Jackson said two of her grandchildren and a family friend had elevated lead levels in their blood.
The Cairns and Hinterland Hospital and Health Service has told her one child’s levels can be attributed to exposure to a lead fishing sinker, but that no explanation had been provided for the other two children.
“Because my granddaughter doesn’t go fishing, and her level was up,” Ms Jackson said.
Ms Jackson said she wanted a more widespread investigation.
“I feel angry and wild,” she said.
“Because in this day and age in Australia, we should be able to go to the tap, turn it on, grab clean drinking water, be able to drink it.
“I’d like to know what is really happening in the community with the water.
“I hope, following on from this now, that parents in Yarrabah, if they see this, please get their children tested, you know, even themselves.
Lead contamination risks ‘lifelong impact’
Cynthia Barlow, a researcher in lead contamination for the University of Adelaide, said that while lead fittings were common across homes in Australia, it was “much more likely to become a problem when the water is at a low pH”.
“It’s just a more acidic environment, so the lead and the copper in the pipes are just more likely to come out of the pipes and into the drinking water,” Dr Barlow said.
She said it was “very rare” to detect lead in children’s blood at all in Australia and that there should be more widespread testing in the town as a matter of priority.
Dr Gair from the Tropical Public Health Service said that although a bigger sample size would be useful to further investigate the cause of the lead leaching, authorities had done what they could to encourage testing.
“I think more comprehensive testing would provide better information and more reassurance to the community. We can offer testing, but we can’t make people get tested,” he said.
But Dr Barlow said authorities needed to be more proactive, with long-term exposure to even low levels of lead affecting immediate health, and posing the risk of a “lifelong impact” of increased developmental and behavioural issues.
“I think the sooner the better because once lead builds up in your body, it takes a long time to get rid of it. The longer that people are being exposed to contamination, the more damage is likely to occur,” she said.
“And I think we really need to understand how prevalent the problem is and what the source is so that it can be addressed and addressed quickly.”
‘Community deserves answers’
Jason King, a Yued Noongar man and the director of clinical services at Gurriny Yealamucka Health Service, agreed that there needed to be a more “widespread understanding of the severity and the spread of [the] water quality issues”.
“We then have to drill down and figure out what is the actual cause because if it’s not coming from the water, it needs to be coming from somewhere else,” Dr King said.
“There is a genuine interest in getting answers because the community deserves those answers.”
Dr King said the health service was in discussions with the paediatrics team in Cairns to include heavy metal testing in situations where doctors had concerns about someone’s neurodevelopment.
“Up till now, that hasn’t been a concern,” he said.
‘Elevated’ lead levels detected in water at far-north Queensland hospital
Atherton hospital staff were offered blood tests but the state’s chief health officer says he would be ‘very surprised’ if they showed high levels of lead
Lead contamination has been discovered in the water at a new hospital building and at an Aboriginal health clinic in far-north Queensland.
The Cairns and Hinterland Hospital and Health Service (CHHHS) announced that a number of water samples taken at the new clinical services building at Atherton hospital and at a health facility in nearby Yarrabah contained lead at levels that exceeded the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) recommended guidelines for safe drinking water.
The new clinical services building at Atherton was due to open on Wednesday. The CHHS chief executive, Leena Singh, said that would be delayed.
“That is because the rectification work and investigation works will take longer,” Singh said.
“We’re inconclusive as to what that could be. It could be from the fittings, so the [copper] pipe fittings could be leaking the lead. But we don’t know at this point in time.”
The elevated lead levels were detected in routine water testing and showed results up to six times the WHO guidelines for drinking water quality, which is 0.01mg/L. However the WHO notes there is no safe level of lead contamination, and lead levels should be kept “as low as reasonably practical”.
“I understand the detection of elevated lead levels may cause concern, but I want to assure our staff and patients at Atherton and Yarrabah that CHHHS is taking extensive measures to limit potential contamination and protect people’s health and wellbeing,” Singh said.
“Expert toxicology advice is that there is a low risk of exposure to lead at both facilities, but it is much better to cautious than complacent.”
Water at Yarrabah Aboriginal community health precinct found to have elevated copper levels
Staff at an Aboriginal community health facility near Cairns have been offered bottled water and precautionary blood tests after tap water at the service was found to contain elevated levels of copper.
Testing of the Yarrabah Health Facility’s mains water in March detected the presence of high levels of copper.
It’s understood the issue is isolated to the clinic and has not affected the quality of the drinking water in the wider community.
Tropical Public Health Services director Richard Gair said investigations into the facility’s plumbing system were ongoing.
Meanwhile, bottled water was being provided to staff and visitors.
“The health service has engaged an expert hydraulic engineering firm to investigate the plumbing system within the facility and make recommendations,” Dr Gair said in a statement.
He said senior officers from the Cairns and Hinterland Hospital and Health Service, including experts in environmental health and medical doctors, had met twice with staff at the Yarrabah Health Service in May to answer questions and share with them plans to address the water quality issues.
“Any staff who work within the health facility, including Gurriny Yealamucka and Queensland ambulance staff, have been offered a precautionary blood test for elevated copper levels,” Dr Gair said.
“The testing is free and voluntary. The drinking water elsewhere in Yarrabah community complies with the Australian drinking water guidelines.”
Queensland Health has not released details about the amount of copper detected in the water.
Town water aquifer safe
Yarrabah Mayor Ross Andrews said the town’s water was pumped from an aquifer to a local reservoir for treatment.
He said he had no reason to believe the town water contained copper contaminants.
“We’re continuing to do that good work in partnership with the authorities to ensure that people have safe and reliable water supply to community,” he said.
Low risk of harm
Organic chemist and honorary professor at the University of Melbourne, Ian Rae, said the upper limit for copper in water was 2mg/L.
“The short-term risks are a gastric upset because the digestive system gets out of whack,” Professor Rae said.
“The worst that’s going to happen is a long-term damage to a liver. That’s a very nasty situation, but it’s very rare. You need quite a bit of copper over a long period to do that.”
A statement from Queensland Health determined that the long-term health risk to the public was low.
“Available evidence does not indicate increased health risk at the levels currently detected unless the person has a rare condition such as Wilson’s disease,” the statement read.
2009/15 – Yarrabah – (Queensland) – E.coli
29/7/09: Yarrabah (Queensland). E. coli detections at multiple points in the reticulation. Boil Water Alert was issued. Creek was put back into use following sufficient water flow. Free chlorine levels were low. Free chlorine levels increased and E.coli testing increased to weekly frequency. Only one chlorine dose point at that time.
15/12/10: Yarrabah (Queensland). E. coli detected at the Police station. Proper flushing was not done prior to sample collection. Station can be subject to low flow and turnover which dissipates chlorine. One chlorine pump was not working, which was then changed and chlorine residual increased. Longer flushing to be also done. Only one chlorine dose point at that time.
29/3/12: Yarrabah (Queensland). E. coli detections at multiple points. Boil Water Alert issued. Fault with chlorine dosing pipe. Pipe replaced and mains flushed. Consecutive sampling showed no E. coli detections. Only one chlorine dose point at that time. Two more dose points were then subsequently installed.
18/8/15: Yarrabah (Queensland). Ran out Chlorine Hydroxide 10%, Boil Water Alert issued. Investigation report has sent to DEWS
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2011 – Yarrabah – (Queensland) – Colour
September 2011: Colour 29 True Colour Hazen
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Jan 2018: Woorabinda Reservoir Shed Tap. 1 sample non-compliant for E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
IT has been more than a week since E Coli was found in the Bowen water supply, making it unsafe to drink.
Now, as residents continue to boil drinking water – the E Coli has gone but it is still unsafe for consumption – Liberal National Party candidate for Dawson George Christensen has called on the Federal Government for funding.
Whitsunday Regional Council placed partial blame for the E Coli on recent rainfall but Mr Christensen said the situation was unacceptable and a new water treatment plant was needed.
“Years of negotiation with the Labor State Government has got the Whitsunday Regional Council nowhere,” Mr Christensen said.
“This project is more deserving than a lot of the other rubbish the Federal Government has funded… people’s health depends on it.”
Mayor Mike Brunker said although E Coli had been eliminated, the water would not be safe until chlorine levels were raised.
“We are currently in the process of increasing the chlorine level,” Cr Brunker said.
The water is safe for showering and washing dishes and clothes.
But for consumption, water should be brought to a rolling boil for three minutes.
It should then be allowed to cool and stored in a clean container with a lid and refrigerated.
Cooled, boiled or bottled water should be used for drinking, cooking, washing raw foods, making ice, cleaning teeth and for pet’s drinking water.
More information about the Bowen water supply is available from Whitsunday Regional Council by calling 4761 3600.
E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Problems have struck the water supply at Bowen in north Queensland for the second time this year.
The town’s water supply is a murky brown colour due to manganese in the supply, but the Whitsunday Regional Council says the water is safe to drink.
Earlier this year, residents were forced to boil their water for two weeks after E.coli was found in the water.
The Whitsunday Regional Council has apologised to Bowen residents for the continuing problems.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
July 24 2017: E. coli was detected in a sample collected from McEwens Beach as part of the routine drinking water monitoring program. It is believed the E. coli detection was due to frogs
found within the sample tap. In response to this incident a plug was installed at the sample tap to ensure no frogs could make their way back in.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2017/18 – Mackay (Queensland) – Lead
2017/18: 0.02381mg/L (max).
2020/21: Nebo Road Treated 0.0338mg/L (max), 0.0011(mean)
October 4 2017: Lead was detected at a concentration above the ADWG health guideline in a sample collected from Seaforth as part of the routine drinking water monitoring program.
Sample tap deterioration was deemed to be the cause of the high lead result. The sample tap
has since been replaced and a sample tap cover installed as part of MRC’s drinking water sample point refurbishment program.
Feb 26 2018: Lead was detected at a concentration above the ADWG health guideline in a sample collected from McEwens Beach as part of the routine drinking water monitoring program. Sample tap deterioration was deemed to be the cause of the high lead result. The sample tap has since been replaced.
July 26 2021: Lead was detected during routine sampling a Walkerston 1 – Skate Park, above the ADWG heath guideline value of 0.01mg/L. Elevated turbidity and iron results were also identified. A sample taken on the same day from a nearby drinking monitoring point returned a compliant result, indicating the breach was localised.
Additional sampling at the Skate Park on 3 August 2021, the Walkerston Reservoir and nearby drinking water sample points returned results that were compliant with the ADWG guidelines. An inspection of the Walkerston 1 – Skate Park sample tap identified that there was degradation of the tap. The sample box also had obvious signs of maintenance work, with the latch having been recently repaired. It is likely that the cause of the high lead, turbidity and iron levels are related to the degradation of the sample tap and the repairs to the sample box. No immediate corrective actions were undertaken as water quality results from nearby sample points and follow up sampling from 3 August 2021 did not indicate any ongoing issues.
Guideline Level 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Mackay (Qld) – Iron
2020/21: Mackay Reticulation (Qld) Iron 0.43745 (max), 0.0199NTU (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Mackay tap water, once rated country’s best, now brown and dirty
Less than two years ago, Mackay was named as having “Australia’s best-tasting tap water”, but that honour has gone down the drain in recent weeks.
Bucasia resident Jade Hayward used to take the high quality of the city’s water for granted. Afterall, Mackay’s tap water was named Australia’s best by the Water Industry Operators Association of Australia (WIOA) in 2019.
But last week, she became alarmed when she was running a bath for her children and noticed how discoloured the water was.
“I went in to check on the bath, the water was half full and it was … a rusty dirt brown,” she said.
“You could still see the bottom of the bath, but it was still dirty to look at.
Australian Record for Diuron in drinking water supply.
Date of Non-Compliance: February & March 2013
Date of Notification: 5 November 2013
Scheme: Mackay – Nebo Rd Treated Water – Diuron and Atrazine (pesticides)
390 μg/L & 350 μg/L. These levels are 19.5 and 17.5 above guideline levels.
Routine monitoring of drinking water detected Diuron and Atrazine in the treated water at Nebo Rd WTP at elevated levels which exceed the ADWG 2011 Health guideline value of 20 μg/L and 20 μg/L respectively. High levels of chemicals were also detected in the sample of the incoming raw water to the WTP collected on the same day as the treated water. Analysis of rainfall data for Mackay indicates that prior to the detections a significant rainfall event occurred which is likely to have washed sediments and chemicals into the Pioneer River which is the raw water source for Nebo Rd WTP.
A failure of the mass spectrometer at the Mackay Water and Waste Services Scientific and Analytical Services Laboratory (SAS) resulted in samples collected from August 2012 to April 2013 to not be analysed by SAS and instead sent to QLD Health laboratory for analysis. This resulted in a delay in obtaining results and analysing the results to identify non-compliances.
Source: Mackay Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2013-14
Guideline level for Atrazine 20μg/L and Diuron 20μg/L
Various samples were collected throughout the Midge Point water mains during an air scour conducted from 4-10 February 2016. The air scour was conducted in response to the high
levels of manganese detected in the Midge Point reticulation system (see non-compliance above).
E.coli was detected in some of the water samples collected during the air scour. These results were not surprising considering that the chlorinator at the Midge Point Reservoir was offline during the majority of the air scour.
Further review of this non-compliance has revealed that the mains were in fact isolated during the air scour and therefore the water was not being supplied to the public and did not pose
a threat to public health. As such this non-compliance should not have been reported to the regulator and these results have not been included as part of the rolling 12 month annual E.coli
value calculated in accordance with the Public Health Regulation 2005.
The Midge Point Reservoir chlorinator was turned on towards the end of the air scour and water samples were taken to confirm compliance with ADWG health values before the mains
were reconnected and water supplied to the public.
2020/21: Midge Point (Qld) 5MPN/100mL
15 Jan 2021: “E. coli was detected in a sample collected from the Midge Point Park reticulation sample point as part of the routine drinking water verification monitoring program. It is believed that the most likely cause of the E. coli was related to a decline in residual chlorine levels across the network, allowing for the water to be contaminated at the sample point. In response to the E. coli detection Council commenced a flushing program for the Midge Point water supply scheme to flush out low chlorine residual waters. Investigation into the incident highlighted the issue with the configuration of the Midge Point water supply scheme in that Midge Point Reservoir at the rechlorination facility was serviced off a single offtake main from the trunk, meaning that when the reservoir was filled from the Kelsey Creek Pump Station, the Midge Point township was supplied with water from the Kelsey Creek Trunk Main. The water from the trunk main does not have a chlorine residual. Council undertook network configuration improvements to ensure all water supplied to the Midge Point township had adequate chlorine residual by undergoing rechlorination at the rechlorination facility. This network configuration improvement involved the installation of a return pipeline from the Kelsey Creek Trunk Main to Midge Point Reservoir to prevent water bypassing the Midge Point rechlorination system when the Kelsey Creek Pump Station operates. The return pipeline was connected August 17, 2021″
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Jan – April 2022: Midge Point (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
Routine monitoring results from Midge Point Park, Midge Point SES and Midge Point Balance Tank, returned Total Trihalomethanes (THM) results above the ADWG health guideline values. In response to iron and manganese issues at Midge Point Water Supply Scheme, chlorine dose rates had been increased prior to the THM exceedance. This may have contributed to the increased THMs. Ongoing THM exceedances occurred between 14 January 2022 and 6 April 2022. Investigations found the exceedances were related to an increase in the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) levels of the raw water supplied through the Crystal Brook Bores. The water supplier confirmed the water source body had been impacted by an aquatic weed outbreak. Minor adjustments were made to the chlorine operating limits to minimise the level of THM’s generated. More frequent water quality monitoring was implemented between January and April 2022, and network operators continued regularly monitoring of chlorine levels.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Midge Point (Queensland) – Manganese
29/12/15 – 6/1/16: 1.468 – 3.377 mg/L
Two complaint samples collected from within the Midge Point reticulation system (at 45 Nielsen Parade and Jackson St Caravan Park) on 29 December 2016 exceeded the ADWG health value for manganese.
Investigation into these non-compliances revealed that the raw supply to the Midge Point water supply scheme has high dissolved iron and manganese. Chlorine gas dosing at the Kelsey Creek Balance Tank (KCBT) oxidises some of the iron and manganese in the source water and minimises growth of iron/manganese associated micro-organisms in the vicinity.
The high manganese concentrations recorded at the complaint sample locations were believed to have been a result of a fault in the pre-chlorination unit at the KCBT in December 2015. It is
believed that the fault allowed for oxidation of manganese further downstream at the Midge Point Reservoir. The pre-chlorinator was fixed as soon as the fault was recognised.
City Water Technology was engaged by council in early 2016 to evaluate the manganese removal process at KCBT and disinfection process at both KCBT and Midge Point Reservoir.
The network was flushed with fresh water in January 2016 and an air scour conducted in February 2016 to remove any traces of manganese.
April 6 2021: A non-routine sample collected from the Proserpine Airport sample point returned a manganese result of 0.67 mg/L, breaching the 0.5 mg/L ADWG health guideline value. Investigation into this incident, including increased frequency of sampling within the Midge Point water supply scheme revealed iron and manganese issues for the scheme. These issues were deemed likely caused by or exacerbated by the following:
• Current treatment processes at the Midge Point TF are not providing for adequate iron and manganese removal (i.e. the current TF is not handling the increased concentrations of iron and manganese in the source water).
• Increased residence time in the network results in iron and manganese biofilms forming which slough off during high demand / water quality changes.
• Higher manganese and iron concentrations are delivered to Midge Point water supply scheme when water is supplied direct from the trunk main.
Council identified the following three key areas for Midge Point water supply scheme improvement:
1. Scheme operations – Chlorine dosing rate changes and scheme scouring. Dose rate changes and scouring programs had been implemented at the time of reporting.
2. Treatment performance – Treatment changes (e.g. packed tower aeration system or equivalent installation). Treatment changes were being finalised at the time of reporting.
3. Network configuration – Midge Point Reservoir return pipeline installation to prevent water bypassing the Midge Point rechlorination system when the Kelsey Creek Pump Station operates. Network configuration improvements were complete at the time of reporting with the recently installed return pipeline connected August 17, 2021.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Midge Point (Qld) – Iron
2020/21: Midge Point (Qld) – Iron 0.3754mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2016/17: Midge Point Park (Queensland) – Turbidity 62.2 NTU (max), 3.95 NTU (av.)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2016 – Ball Bay/Halliday Bay – (Queensland) – E.coli
2016 March: 8 MPN/100mL.
There were less than 100% of samples which complied with the nil E.coli standard for the
Mackay and Sarina water supply schemes (see grey shading in Table 3-1) due to an E.coli
detection at Ball Bay/Haliday Bay Reservoir in March 2016 and at Sarina Apex Park in March
2017.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
There were less than 100% of samples which complied with the nil E.coli standard for the
Mackay and Sarina water supply schemes (see grey shading in Table 3-1) due to an E.coli
detection at Ball Bay/Haliday Bay Reservoir in March 2016 and at Sarina Apex Park in March
2017.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
October 2020 + October 2021 – Marian WTP Cyanobacteria
Concentrations of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria total cells) for FY 2021 – 2022 are graphed in Figure 3 – 2. Cyanobacteria total cell results for Nebo Rd WTP Raw River Water were generally less than 1000 cells/mL (similar to those for FY 2020 – 2021 and FY 2019 – 2020), except for May 2022 where there was a small increase to 1947 cells/mL. The results did not indicate blue-green algae blooms occurred at Dumbleton Weir. Cyanobacteria total cell results for Marian WTP Raw Water indicate there was a significant bloom in October 2021, with results reaching
689,423 cells/mL. A bloom also occurred in October of the previous year
2016/17 – Marian (Queensland) – Lead
Patricia Cct
A concentration of 0.0126 mg/L for lead was reported for a sample collected from ‘Mirani 2 – Patricia Cct’ on 5 September 2016. This result was initially flagged as exceeding the ADWG health value of 0.01 mg/L and was therefore reported as a drinking water incident. Upon review of this incident it has been identified that this concentration did not in fact exceed the guideline when comparing the result once rounded to a precision level of one significant figure (0.01
mg/L) (as per guidance stipulated in page 165 of the ADWG).
Re-analysis of the original sample returned a lead concentration of 0.0085 mg/L. The re-sample results (for a sample collected from Mirani 2 – Patricia Cct on the 12 September 2016) returned a lead result of <0.001 mg/L.
Re-analysis results confirmed the original result was not due to analytical error and was unlikely to be due to contamination of the original sub sample at the laboratory. The original and re-analysis results indicate that the sample tap may have deteriorated prior to sample collection and contributed to the high lead result in the sample.
No corrective actions were taken as there was deemed to be no risk to public health.
Alice Street
A concentration of 0.0442 mg/L for lead was reported for a sample collected from the Mirani 1 – Alice Street drinking water sample point on 11 May 2017. This result exceeds the ADWG health value of 0.01 mg/L.
Re-analysis of the original sample returned a lead concentration of 0.0415 mg/L. The re-sample results (for a sample collected from the Mirani 1 – Alice Street sample point on the 8 May 2017) returned a lead result of <0.0005 mg/L.
Re-analysis results confirmed the ADWG health guideline exceedance. It was expected the original exceedance was the result of tap degradation. Following identification of the exceedance arrangements were made to replace the sample point tap with a brass tap.
2018/19: Marian 0.01255mg/L (max), 0.00106mg/L (av.)
May 30 2022: A lead result above the ADWG health guideline values was detected during routine sampling at Mirani 2 – Patricia Court. On the same day, a compliant result was recorded from Mirani 1 – Alice Street, suggesting that the breach was localised. As the sample point is at the end on the line, the reticulation system was flushed and resampling conducted. As the sample tap was only installed in 2021, the result is most likely caused by the tap being unused for extended periods, allowing sedimentation to form in the line, which is then disturbed when the water sample is taken, rather than contamination of the drinking water supply.
The sampling procedure for this site now includes a preliminary flush of the main through a 50mm offtake tap prior to sampling. Routine monitoring on the 6 June 2022 and follow up sampling on 10 June 2022 at Patricia Court and Alice Street, returned compliant results.
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Marian (Queensland) – Chloride
2016/17: Marian (Queensland) Chlorides 301.95mg/L (max), 29.77mg/L (av.)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Mackay (Qld) – Turbidity
2020/21: Marian Reticulation (Qld) Turbidity 10.5NTU (max), 0.3NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Marian (Qld) – Iron
2020/21: Marian Reticulation (Qld) Iron 0.4518mg/L (max), 0.0117mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
23/3/22: Marian (Queensland) – Nickel
A nickel result above the ADWG health guideline value was detected during routine sampling from Mirani 2 – Patricia Court sample point. On the same day, a compliant result was recorded from Mirani 1 – Alice St, suggesting that the breach was localised. Inspection of the Mirani 2 – Patricia Court sample point and sampling procedures did not identify any cause. No immediate action was taken as the Alice St samples from the same day did not indicate any water quality issues. Resampling was carried out on the 29 March 2022 at Patricia Court and Alice Street, returning compliant results. No further action was taken.
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2020/21: Bloomsbury (Queensland) – Total Chlorine 10.3mg/L (max), 0.73mg/L (min)
November 9 2020: Bloomsbury WTP was overdosing chlorine for a period on November 9, 2020 and as a result Bloomsbury Treated Water samples recorded total chlorine levels above the ADWG health guideline value of 5 mg/L.The overdosing incident was caused by an analyser fault likely associated with a power outage on November 8, 2020. Water treatment operators addressed the overdosing incident by making appropriate dosing and pump setting adjustments and releasing overdosed water as quickly as possible from the tanks at the WTP. SMS alarms and upper limit interlocks were set up in SCADA to prevent future overdose events.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Bloomsbury (Qld) – Chlorate Jul 2 2020 – March 2022
Chlorate (a parameter with no water quality criteria) was detected in Bloomsbury treated and Bloomsbury reticulation water samples (collected as part of the routine drinking water verification monitoring program) at levels above the Qld Health preferred guideline value of 800 µg/L. Incident investigation determined the source of the chlorate to be the sodium hypochlorite solution used for iron and manganese oxidation and disinfection at the Bloomsbury WTP. Chlorate is a natural break-down product of sodium hypochlorite and
concentrations are higher in older batches of chemical especially if they are exposed to heat or contain metals. The high chlorate levels at Bloomsbury are expected to be further exacerbated by the current WTP design which includes recirculation of chlorine dosed filtrate. Council reduced chlorate levels by cleaning out the raw water storge tank and continuing to empty and replace aged sodium hypochlorite solution stored at the WTP. In the long term, there will not be any potential for chlorate generation for the Bloomsbury water supply scheme as the WTP will be converted to chlorine gas for disinfection. This conversion is scheduled to be completed in January 2022. Since June 4, 2021 Council have been transferring treated water to the Bloomsbury scheme from other Council water supply schemes. This was prompted due to
raw water quality issues (high turbidity, iron and manganese) which made running the Bloomsbury WTP very difficult. At the time of reporting the WTP remains offline and 100% of water for the scheme is being sourced from other Council water supply schemes. Council are in the process of investigating alternative raw water sources / possible long-term connections to the Midge Point water supply scheme.
16/3/22: Bloomsbury (Queensland) Chlorate
Routine monitoring of the reticulation network at the Bloomsbury School sample point returned chlorate (a parameter with no water quality criteria) at levels above the Qld Health preferred guideline value of 800 µg/L. Due to a failure of the raw water groundwater bore at Bloomsbury, potable water has been transferred from Mackay since August 2021, averaging between 300 and 400 KL /month. After the exceedance occurred, additional water quality sampling of two treated water storage tanks on on 31 March 2022 identified there was ongoing impact from chlorate within the treatment tanks. The water in these tanks was removed and replaced with water transported from the Mackay scheme. Follow up sampling confirmed that this immediately reduced the overall chlorate levels in the treated water storage tanks. In
response to this incident, sodium hypochlorite at Bloomsbury is changed over monthly, ensuring the old sodium hypochlorite in storage is removed and the storage tank cleaned, before a delivery of fresh sodium hypochlorite is received.
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
A routine sample from Koumala Water Supply Scheme detected chlorate (a parameter with no water quality criteria) at levels above the Qld Health preferred guideline value of 800 µg/L. The chlorate result is believed to be related to the degradation of sodium hypochlorite which is used to treat the raw water.
Council staff replaced the sodium hypochlorite stored at the treatment plant with a batch of fresh sodium hypochlorite which was stored in an air conditioned building. Follow-up sampling returned a result that was within the Qld Health preferred guidelines. MRC is in the process of upgrading the Koumala WTP, which includes changing the disinfection system from sodium hypochlorite to chlorine gas.
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Sydney’s drinking water supply is at risk of the same “worst case scenario” facing some New South Wales regional communities, where large amounts of bushfire ash has been swept into dams by heavy rainfall, a water expert has warned.
Stuart Khan, a water quality security expert and environmental engineer from the University of NSW, said recent bushfires had left large deposits of ash in the Warragamba Dam catchment, which supplies 80% of the city’s drinking water.
“The situation in Sydney is really serious,” Khan said. “Having a reservoir full of soil and sediment and ash is in itself a real problem, because it makes water treatment processes more difficult.
“There will be a huge amount of ash sitting in the catchment now. The best case is we get gentle rainfall for weeks and months that allows some gentle regrowth. If we have a big storm or a big wet weather event in Sydney’s drinking water catchment, we will see some of that ash running into the dam.”
WaterNSW has said fires in the catchment areas posed no risk to water quality “at this time” and that the authority had been working to minimise potential effects.
“The potential for water quality impacts on dam storages will depend on the extent and intensity of the fires and timing of the next significant rainfall,” it said last week.
Precautionary planning was under way, and it could use sophisticated measures, including taking water from variable places or storage depths, or deploying booms and curtains to isolate flows that posed a water quality risk.
Khan said some regional communities, such as Tenterfield in the northern New England region of NSW, had already had their drinking water supply polluted by ash. Tenterfield residents have been boiling their water for more than 70 days.
When ash – which contains large amounts of organic carbon – enters the water supply it can take oxygen from the water and change the water chemistry. Khan said fish kills were possible, as was blue-green algae.
The more sediment in the water, the more difficult to treat. Khan said that while Sydney had backup systems to deal with a similar situation, the threat was much greater in many regional communities where treatment infrastructure was old or outdated.
“Across the east coast of NSW, almost all of our water supply is surface water,” he said. “The way we protect catchments is having forested areas around them. If there is a bushfire in the catchment, it affects that protection.
“We’ve got lots of places where supplies draw from a single reservoir, a single treatment plant, with relatively simple treatment in place.
“It’s time to have a good hard look at drinking water plants around NSW and ask the question: are they up to scratch on a day-to-day basis? Do they have the resilience … [to] withstand these hazardous events and continue to reliably provide safe drinking water quality?”
Patrick Lane, a forest hydrologist from Melbourne University told the ABC that steep, dry-forested areas in particular were prone to mud slides after bushfires.
“I think water authorities in the past probably thought this was something that would come along once every now and again, but I think we need to be thinking much more about this could be something that happens every few years,” Lane said.
Catchment Authority denies half Sydney’s water supply unusable
he Sydney Catchment Authority has dismissed claims Sydney’s water supply is under threat from a toxic algal bloom in Warragamba Dam.
State Liberal MP Michael Richardson says Sydney Water catchment documents, obtained through a Freedom of Information request, show the algal bloom in Warragamba Dam has rendered about 500 billion litres unusable.
Mr Richardson says using water from deeper within the dam significantly reduces the drinkable supply.
“Very high levels of blue-green algal bacteria within the top 12 metres of the reservoir mean the water has to be drawn from below that point,” he said.
“Effectively, it knocks out half the water behind Warragamba Dam.”
He says none of Sydney’s filtration plants are fitted to treat algal toxins.
“There’s nothing at the Prospect water filtration plant, which treats 85 per cent of Sydney’s water, so really there’s nothing standing between us and a water shutdown – apart from luck.”
But Catchment Authority acting chief executive says Ian Tanner says the algal bloom is not toxic and only affects about 50 billion litres, or about three to four per cent of the dam’s supply.
“We’ve got good flexibility in not only the source of water but also the depth from which we can take it,” he said.
“We can go down even deeper if we wanted to because Warragamba, where we take the water from, is 85 metres deep and this algae is only in the top 10 to 12 metres.”
The New South Wales Government has also denied reports the algal bloom is threatening half of Sydney’s water supply.
NSW Water Minister Phil Koperberg says there is no imminent threat to the drinking water supply.
“Very little of the total volume of the water in Warragamba Dam or Lake Burragorang is affected,” he said.
“On current indications, we would have enough unaffected water to last Sydney for between four and six years.”
Cyanobacterial Bloom Management Current and Future OptionsAbstracts from the meeting held 12 & 13 August, 2009, Parramatta, NSW
Cyanobacteria bloom in Warragamba Dam in 2007 Bala Vigneswaran
Senior Water Quality Scientist, Sydney Catchment Authority
A cyanobacteria bloom developed in Warragamba Dam in August 2007, and persisted over three months. This paper describes the nature of the cyanobacteria bloom of 2007, the operational responses undertaken by the Sydney Catchment Authority (SCA) and the preliminary results of the analysis of relevant data.
The cell count of Microcystis exceeded 100,000 cells/mL in the first week of September 2007, and reached 700,000 cells/mL near the dam wall in October 2007. A cyanobacteria bloom of this proportion has never occurred before near the dam wall. The strength of the bloom started to decline in December 2007.
The SCA managed this event in accordance with its Bulk Raw Water Quality Incident Response Plan. A comprehensive monitoring and surveillance program was developed in consultation with Sydney Water and NSW Health. The incident management actions were continually reviewed. This effective management meant that treated water continued to meet Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG), and the consumers in Sydney were not impacted in any way.
More than 120 water samples were tested for toxins, and all but four detected no toxins. On the four occasions where toxins were detected, the toxin levels were well below the guideline values, and immediate re-sampling of the same sites detected no toxins.
A molecular technique was used to investigate the potential presence of genes in the cell population that might produce Microcystin toxin. Microcystis species detected near the dam wall had a very low fraction of cells with a capacity to produce toxin. A fluorometric probe was trialled as a means to study the distribution of cyanobacteria cells with mixed results.
Remote imagery was also analysed to investigate its potential value in the monitoring of a bloom. To better understand the nature and cause of the bloom and therefore the risk of similar events in the future, the SCA undertook a comprehensive analysis of the available data. Before the event the storage volume in the dam had declined to only 681,000 ML, i.e., 34% of the full capacity.
The subsequent inflow event in June 2007 delivered an inflow of approximately 489,000ML over a period of six weeks. Therefore the volume of water delivered represented about 72% of the volume of stored water prior to the event. This inflow raised the water level by approximately 9 metres.
It was concluded that the cyanobacteria event was the result of the unprecedented combination of the following factors; (a) a significant inflow, which entered the storage as an underflow, (b) timing of the inflow during the seasonal cooling cycle between April and July, (c) substantial levels of nutrient loading through catchment contributions and remobilisation from the bed deposits within the storage, (d) efficient transport of the nutrient rich waters to the dam wall, (d) low initial storage volume and high inflow volume to storage volume ratio, and (e) the environmental conditions conducive for a cyanobacteria bloom.
Better boil ya billy: when Australian water goes bad
Many Australians take it for granted we can drink untreated tap water, without worrying about the health effects.
However, a recent audit criticised the regulation of pollution in the massive Warragamba Dam drinking water catchment, the biggest single metropolitan water reservoir in Australia.
The Auditor-General’s report found that the NSW Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was not effectively regulating water pollution in drinking water catchments. The report mentioned WaterNSW, which is the authority that supplies the majority of Sydney’s water needs. The report concluded that responsible bodies like the EPA and WaterNSW need to work together more effectively to protect Sydney’s water from pollution.
Problems in the Warragamba Dam, which is surely the most regulated and monitored water supply in the country, raise the issue of regional water quality.
Sydney’s salinity is rising
The audit was triggered by an independent triennial review of Sydney’s water supply (in which I participated), which was completed last year.
One of the issues we identified was rising salinity in Warragamba Dam. Although Sydney’s water supply has relatively low salinity by Australian standards, the level in Warragamba Dam (measured as electrical conductivity) was about twice that of other, smaller storages.
Coal mines in the Warragamba catchment are a major source of salinity. The Springvale mine is the largest, and it disposes a large volume of wastewater to the catchment. I have been very concerned about the impact of this coal mine discharge on water quality for many years.
The Springvale mine’s current discharge licence permits more than 10 Olympic swimming pools of saline waste water to be released daily into the Warragamba catchment. The waste water from Springvale has a salinity level eight times higher than that of Warragamba Dam.
Regional water problems
If pollution is allowed in such an important water supply, what is happening to your local water supply?
Currently there are several water supplies in Tasmania that have “boil water” alerts. Boil water alerts indicate that harmful pathogens could be present in the water supply, and it should be boiled for at least a minute before drinking.
In some communities in Western Australia the water supply is tainted by contamination that is not managed by simply boiling it. High nitrate levels in tap water have been reported from some communities, such as Meekatharra, a small township 700km northeast of Perth that relies on groundwater.
High levels of nitrates in the water cannot be easily treated, and are particularly dangerous for infants. When drunk by babies it can affect their blood oxygen levels and cause a disease called blue baby syndrome. Western Australia’s Water Corporation recommends that babies under three months do not consume the water, and bottled water is recommended for young babies.
Water in Katherine, in the Northern Territory, has been contaminated by toxic and persistent chemicals used in firefighting foam. The toxins have accumulated in the groundwater. Many other communities across Australia have also been similarly affected.
Uranium has also been reported in some remote community water supplies from the Northern Territory. Alarmingly, uranium levels were above Australian drinking water guidelines, and there are no clear guidelines for managing the problem.
These examples from regional communities reinforce the importance of preventing contamination from entering water supplies.
It is worth remembering that 20 years ago protozoan pathogens from the Warragamba supply resulted in several boil water alerts across Sydney.
The NSW Auditor-General’s report found serious issues in how the EPA manages water pollution in Sydney’s drinking water catchments. For example, much of the data used by the EPA was self-reported by industry sources.
It may be surprising to many Australians that our water quality varies so wildly across the country. Our pollution watchdogs need to be strengthened and resourced properly so they can protect our most fundamental resource.
2007/08: Bayswater North (Victoria) – Turbidity 5.2 NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2007/08: Woori Yallock (Victoria) – Iron
2007/08: Woori Yallock (Victoria) – Iron 0.35mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
On 13 February 2008, an E. coli test result of 1 organism/100mL was reported from a sample taken from a customer tap in Doncaster. Extensive flushing of the mains in the affected area
was undertaken. E. coli was not detected in any of the subsequent additional samples collected across the locality.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
On 2 February 2008, an E. coli test result of 1 organism/100mL was reported in a sample taken from a customer tap in Warranwood. Extensive flushing of the mains in the affected area was
undertaken. E. coli was not detected in any of the subsequent additional samples collected across the locality.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
On 21 January 2008, an E. coli test result of 1 organism/100mL was reported in a sample taken at the Kalorama tank in the Ridge/Monbulk water sampling locality. Water quality testing conducted extensively throughout the distribution zone immediately after detection indicated
the problem was localised to this distribution zone. The tank was isolated from the distribution system, drained, inspected and cleaned. The tank was refilled and dosed with chlorine. E. coli was not detected in the subsequent samples.
On 26 March 2008, an E. coli test result of 170 organisms/100mL was reported from a sample taken from a customer tap in the Ridge/Monbulk water sampling locality. Further water
quality testing indicated the problem was localised to the Kalorama Reservoir distribution zone. In response, the tank was isolated from the distribution system, drained, inspected, cleaned and minor repairs completed. The tank was refilled and spot dosed with chlorine. E. coli was not detected in the subsequent additional samples collected across the locality.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
On 28 February 2007, an E. coli test result of 2 organisms/100mL was reported in a sample taken at a customer tap in the Seville water sampling locality. Localised cleaning of water mains and spot chlorination of the Lewis Hill Reservoir were undertaken. E. coli was not detected in the subsequent additional samples collected across the locality.
On 23 March 2007, an E. coli test result of 120 organisms/100mL was reported from a sample taken at a customer tap in the Seville Water sampling locality. The immediate response involved cleaning of the mains and further sampling across the entire water sampling locality. An extensive investigation was undertaken and the area was monitored at 11 sampling locations
across the locality three times per week for a period of three months. E. coli was not detected in any of the routine or additional samples collected during this period. A new water main to increase the turnover of water in the area will be constructed in 2007-08.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2006/07 Seville (Vic) – Lead
2006/07 – Seville (Vic) – Lead 0.011mg/L (max)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2006/07 Malvern (Vic) – Lead
2006/07 – Malvern (Vic) – Lead 0.012mg/L (max)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
‘Shocking’ metallic sludge contaminating Sydney dams that supply drinking water
Metallic sludge is contaminating two dams that supply drinking water to one of Sydney’s biggest growth areas, official data from New South Wales’ peak water body has revealed.
The data, obtained by the ABC under freedom of information laws, revealed dozens of samples taken by WaterNSW from deep in Cataract Dam and Cordeaux Dam over the past three years showed elevated levels of iron.
Water authorities say the contamination is not a concern because other sources of water are available to “balance water quality and quantity”.
But they concede the falling storages of Sydney’s dams are posing a serious challenge.
Cataract Dam and Cordeaux Dam directly supply water to the Macarthur region in Sydney’s south-west, which is expected to swell to more than 600,000 people by 2026.
The booming area has no access to clean, desalinated water from the Kurnell plant.
Tap water is safe but questions raised about long-term future
The treated water that makes it to people’s taps remains safe to drink but the results show the contamination in the dam is worsening.
Cataract Dam is only 26 per cent full, prompting community debate about the long-term supply of clean drinking water during long droughts.
Western Sydney University scientist Ian Wright, who specialises in research into urban water quality, described the results as “shocking” and “unnatural”.
He said the pollution was caused by metallic sediments — deep in the dams’ catchments — dissolving into the water.
The sediments are a by-product of coal-mining activity, which over many decades has damaged Sydney’s rock beds, swamps and streams.
The records show samples from Cataract and Cordeaux dams have exceeded acceptable limits more than 90 times in three years.
By comparison, neighbouring Avon Dam has breached just three times in three years.
Dr Wright said that while small doses of iron are safe to drink, an elevated level usually indicates more dangerous contaminants in the dams.
The deepwater samples also showed levels of aluminium were unusually high in both dams.
Contamination looks like ‘sludge or ooze’
A WaterNSW spokesperson conceded “the drought has caused some challenges to water quality”.
They described the “variation” as a “common and natural occurrence”, and any contaminants were filtered to meet Australian standards.
Rapid changes in currents, water levels or temperature in a dam can trigger the metallic sediment at the bottom of the dams to chemically dissolve, causing contamination of higher water levels.
“It looks like sludge or ooze,” Dr Wright said.
“Inside this sludge there are salts and minerals, there is iron, aluminium and manganese.
“There is lithium, strontium, barium, titanium. There is going to be zinc and nickel.”
The impact of mining in water catchments was last year probed by an independent expert panel appointed by the office of the NSW chief scientist.
The WaterNSW spokesperson said that study “did raise concerns about the potential for metals to enter dams in the long term” but that more research was needed
The Berejiklian Government is reviewing the future of new mining projects in the catchment.
Julie Sheppard, from environmental group Protect Our Water Alliance, said the data from WaterNSW showed “iron levels are through the roof”.
“We don’t really know the full impacts of mining, but the suggestion is they are serious and ongoing and remain in perpetuity,” she said.
NSW Water Minister Melinda Pavey has been contacted for comment.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
‘Shocking’ metallic sludge contaminating Sydney dams that supply drinking water
Metallic sludge is contaminating two dams that supply drinking water to one of Sydney’s biggest growth areas, official data from New South Wales’ peak water body has revealed.
The data, obtained by the ABC under freedom of information laws, revealed dozens of samples taken by WaterNSW from deep in Cataract Dam and Cordeaux Dam over the past three years showed elevated levels of iron.
Water authorities say the contamination is not a concern because other sources of water are available to “balance water quality and quantity”.
But they concede the falling storages of Sydney’s dams are posing a serious challenge.
Cataract Dam and Cordeaux Dam directly supply water to the Macarthur region in Sydney’s south-west, which is expected to swell to more than 600,000 people by 2026.
The booming area has no access to clean, desalinated water from the Kurnell plant.
Tap water is safe but questions raised about long-term future
The treated water that makes it to people’s taps remains safe to drink but the results show the contamination in the dam is worsening.
Cataract Dam is only 26 per cent full, prompting community debate about the long-term supply of clean drinking water during long droughts.
Western Sydney University scientist Ian Wright, who specialises in research into urban water quality, described the results as “shocking” and “unnatural”.
He said the pollution was caused by metallic sediments — deep in the dams’ catchments — dissolving into the water.
The sediments are a by-product of coal-mining activity, which over many decades has damaged Sydney’s rock beds, swamps and streams.
The records show samples from Cataract and Cordeaux dams have exceeded acceptable limits more than 90 times in three years.
By comparison, neighbouring Avon Dam has breached just three times in three years.
Dr Wright said that while small doses of iron are safe to drink, an elevated level usually indicates more dangerous contaminants in the dams.
The deepwater samples also showed levels of aluminium were unusually high in both dams.
Contamination looks like ‘sludge or ooze’
A WaterNSW spokesperson conceded “the drought has caused some challenges to water quality”.
They described the “variation” as a “common and natural occurrence”, and any contaminants were filtered to meet Australian standards.
Rapid changes in currents, water levels or temperature in a dam can trigger the metallic sediment at the bottom of the dams to chemically dissolve, causing contamination of higher water levels.
“It looks like sludge or ooze,” Dr Wright said.
“Inside this sludge there are salts and minerals, there is iron, aluminium and manganese.
“There is lithium, strontium, barium, titanium. There is going to be zinc and nickel.”
The impact of mining in water catchments was last year probed by an independent expert panel appointed by the office of the NSW chief scientist.
The WaterNSW spokesperson said that study “did raise concerns about the potential for metals to enter dams in the long term” but that more research was needed
The Berejiklian Government is reviewing the future of new mining projects in the catchment.
Julie Sheppard, from environmental group Protect Our Water Alliance, said the data from WaterNSW showed “iron levels are through the roof”.
“We don’t really know the full impacts of mining, but the suggestion is they are serious and ongoing and remain in perpetuity,” she said.
NSW Water Minister Melinda Pavey has been contacted for comment.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2018/19: Goondiwindi (Queensland) – Colour 100 HU (max), 3.9HU (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2016/17 Miriam Vale (Queensland) – Iron
2016/17: Miriam Vale (Queensland) – Iron 0.45mg/L (max), 0.06mg/L (av.)
2017/18: Miriam Vale (Queensland) – Iron 0.66mg/L (max), 0.034mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Bororen (Queensland) Iron
2017/18: Bororen (Queensland) Iron 0.67mg/L (max), 0.038mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Two bromate results in the Lake Awoonga scheme exceeded the ADWG lifetime exposure health guideline of 0.02mg/L, with the highest result being 0.046mg/L. The average result for the scheme was 0.001mg/L, which is significantly below the lifetime exposure guideline value…
During routine monitoring in March 2018 it was identified that there were exceedances in Bromate levels in the Lake Awoonga Scheme within the Clinton Park Reservoir Zone and at the Wurdong Reservoir. Both these Reservoirs are fed by the Gladstone WTP which is operated by the Gladstone Area Water Board (GAWB). Investigation and Cause: • This is likely due to bromine within Lake Awoonga, but the source has not been identified.
Gladstone Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2017/18
GUIDELINE: Based on health considerations, the concentration of bromate in drinking water should not exceed 0.02 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Bromate is not a normal component of water but may be formed from bromide during ozonation. Concentrations up to 0.09 mg/L have been reported in ozonated drinking water. Bromate is a strong oxidant and will probably react with organic matter in water, forming bromide as a by-product.
Bromate is used in home hair permanent-wave neutralising solutions. Although it is used in some foods overseas, Australian Food Standards do not allow bromate to be used in food in Australia.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
It is unlikely that bromate would be present in Australian reticulated drinking water supplies unless ozonation is used for disinfection.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2016/17 Gladstone (Queensland) – Iron
2016/17: Gladstone (Queensland) – Iron 0.36mg/L (max), 0.007mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2017/18 – Kynuna (Queensland) – Non compliant samples
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
On 9 May 2018, during routine verification monitoring a positive detection of E. coli (1 MPN/100mL) was recorded at a sample tap in the Currumbin Waters WSD. The free chlorine residual was 0.91 mg/L.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
On 26 February 2018, during routine verification monitoring a positive detection of E. coli (>200 MPN/100mL) was recorded at a sample tap in the Reedy Creek WSD. The free chlorine residual was 0.94 mg/L.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
On 03 January 2018, during routine verification monitoring a positive detection of E. coli (14 MPN/100mL) was recorded at a sample tap in the Nerang WSD. The free chlorine residual was 0.11 mg/L.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
On 30 November 2017, a positive detection of E. coli (2 MPN/100mL) occurred with non-routine monitoring of the supply reservoir in the Pimpama Coomera WSD. The free chlorine residual at the site was 0.19 mg/L.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
On 23 November 2017, during routine verification monitoring a positive detection of E. coli (1 MPN/100mL) was recorded at a sample tap in the Currumbin Waters WSD. The free chlorine residual was 0.72 mg/L.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Incident description, a positive detection of e.coli was found in the Goovigen Town water supply
during routine sampling. As a public safety precaution, a boil water alert was issued. Despite repeated sampling, there were no failures in disinfection or subsequent detections of microorganisms.
Occasionally false positives test results can occur due to the sensitivity of the testing techniques, and the challenge of preserving aseptic conditions during field sampling.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Incident Description: On the 27/6/2016 several customers from Thangool reported a strong chlorine taste and odour in the water supply to Banana Shire Council. When testing the mains in Thangool it was found that the residual chlorine was in exceedance of the ADWG guideline. Corrective and Preventative Actions: The mains supply to Thangool was tested and found to be within the guideline values. Water mains throughout Thangool were flushed to reduce the chlorine levels to within the ADWG levels and follow up monitoring and checking with affected customers was undertaken. Investigation after the incident found that the chlorine dosing equipment had a fault that allowed overdosing of chlorine during high flow periods. All routine maintenance and inspection had been performed according to manufacturer and legislative requirements. The dosing controller was replaced and commissioned to ensure that chlorine dosage was unaffected by mains flow.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Greenvale Water Supply (January 2023-March 2023) Non Potable
2 March 2023 (Charters Towers Regional Council)
The extraction of water from the Burdekin River, and the treatment and water reticulation network provided to the Greenvale community is operating as it has since it was transferred to Council in the early 2000s.
Since then, Council has been managing the system and complying with water quality standards.
More recently, Council has entered into discussions with the ASMTI (Australian Singapore Military Training Initiative) to provide new drinking water and wastewater treatment systems for the community.
Prior to Christmas 2022, there was a process failure at the Greenvale Water Treatment Plant that caused excess chlorination and increased chlorate levels in the water supply.
This was a reportable incident and Council advised the regulator, Queensland Health that it had occurred.
The water supply was in normal operation a few days after the incident, however due to a change in Queensland Health Water Quality Standards, Queensland Health have since directed Council to notify the community that the water supply is ‘Non-Potable’; that is, not fit for human consumption.
National Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) have a higher threshold rate for chlorates, and the Greenvale water supply is within those standards, however Queensland Health has determined a more cautious approach and has lower acceptable thresholds.
Council is currently providing bottled drinking water to the community and will continue to do so until there is a viable alternative potable water supply.
While the water is deemed non-potable, it can still be used for other household purposes such as washing and for use for pets and plants, but cannot be consumed, that is, not to be used to drink or to use for cooking purposes.
The timeframe to implement a robust and appropriate solution will take approximately 12 months, with an estimated cost in the region of $3 – $4 million, to be undertaken in 2 stages:
Stage 1 will involve a modified chlorination system which can be installed within 6 months.
Stage 2 will involve further works addressing all issues and provide a water source classified as potable, which will take up to another 6 months.
Council has completed concept designs and is now undertaking a detailed design and construction program in conjunction with the ASMTI project.
Council acknowledges that the current arrangements represent a significant impact to the community and ask for patience whilst the delivery of an improved water supply is sourced and installed.
Due to the scale and technical issues of the project, Council is not able to address the water supply issues in the short-term but is committed to providing a robust long-term solution for the community.
30 Jan 2023
The Mayor, Deputy Mayor, and Councillors visited Greenvale with the CEO and Council Officers on Friday, 27 January 2023 to update and inform the community about the current situation with the drinking water supply and Council’s action plan to address the problem.
While the water supply is declared Non-Potable, Council will continue to provide alternative supply via bottled water. In response to requests from the community, some drinking water will also be provided in containers with taps rather than screw top bottles.
Council has engaged a consultant to assess the situation, consider alternative methods to improve water quality, and provide estimates of costs and timeframes. A draft report has been submitted and is under review.
It is expected that resumption of normal supply by using alternative disinfection systems may take up to six months. The establishment and commissioning of a treatment plant that will remove the turbidity and other contaminants from the water will take longer. This is intended to be completed as a preliminary activity in advance of the Australia-Singapore Military Training Initiative (ASMTI), and Council will seek reimbursement to cover the costs of the works.
Council is focused on minimising the disruption to normal activities in Greenvale, and appreciates the patience of the community during this challenging period.
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
The primary route of exposure of cadmium is via contaminated water or food. Fertiliser can be a source of excessive cadmium as can rainwater tanks. It has been linked to cancer, lung disorders, kidney disease and autoimmune disease.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Greenvale (Queensland) – Colour
2017/18: Greenvale (Queensland) – Colour. 22 Pt-Co Units (max), 5.2 Pt-Co Units (mean)
“At times colour is above the ADWG guideline criteria….Generally the colour of treated water at GISC is below the ADWG value, however, large spikes were observed in January 2013 due to an increase in the concentration of manganese in the source water.”
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Greenvale (Queensland) – Iron
2017/18: Greenvale (Queensland) – Iron 2.9mg/L (max), 0.5mg/L (mean)
2018/19: Greenvale (Queensland) – Iron 2.6mg/L (max), 0.38mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Springsure (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2017/18: Springsure (Queensland) 8.52 pH
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Springsure – (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids
2017/18: Springsure Total Dissolved Solids 890mg/L (max), 719.33 (av.)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/in
Rolleston (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2017/18: Rolleston (Queensland) pH 8.53 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2017/18: Buchans Point (Queensland) Colour 15HU (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Buchans Point (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2017/18: Buchans Point (Queensland) pH 9.12 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2017/18: Bessie Point (Queensland) – Iron 0.448mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Notification of a noncompliance with the drinking water guidelines for chlorine. A routine sample collected on the 06/03/2018 had a chlorine residual of 7.2mg/L at Fixter Rd Aloomba.
Subsequent investigation of the chlorine dosing pump found an error resulting in the excessive
dosing of chlorine into the supply main.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Notification of the detection of one presumptive Cryptosporidium spp. in a 50L sample collected on the 13/09/2017 at Draper Rd Reservoir. A re-sample collected on the 14/09/2017
indicated no presence of Cryptosporidium spp.
Notification of the detection of one Cryptosporidium spp. in a 50L sample collected on the 21/09/2017 at Draper Rd Reservoir. A re-sample collected on the 22/09/2017 indicated no presence of Cryptosporidium spp.
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Notification of the detection of one presumptive Giardia spp. in a 50L sample collected
on the 11/10/2017 at Draper Rd Reservoir. A re-sample collected on the 12/10/2017
indicated no presence of Giardia spp.
Notification of the detection of one presumptive and one confirmed Giardia spp. in a 50L sample collected on the 22/02/2017 at Draper Rd Reservoir. A re-sample collected on the
23/02/2018 indicated no presence of Giardia spp.
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Notification of the detection of presumptive and confirmed Cryptosporidium spp. in a
10L sample collected on the 24/10/2017 at Tidmarsh Rd, off the Bruce Hwy. A re-sample collected on the 25/10/2017 indicated no presence of Cryptosporidium spp.
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
10/8/21: Kanpi NDW Customer Tap Non Potable Fluoride 2.5mg/L (max), (2.4mg/L av. 2021/22)
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Kanpi (South Australia) – Chloride
25/2/20: Kanpi Chloride 402mg/L
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective in the control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Kanpi (South Australia) – Hardness
25/2/20: Kanpi (South Australia) Hardness 516mg/L
22/3/22: Kanpi TS NDW Non Potable Total Hardness 373mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Kanpi (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids.
25/2/20: Kanpi (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 1260mg/L
22/3/22: Kanpi TS NDW Non Potable Total Dissolved Solids 1000mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Kanpi (South Australia) Sodium
25/2/20: Kanpi (South Australia) Sodium 257mg/L
22/3/22: Kanpi NDW Customer Tap Non Potable Sodium 219mg/L (max)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
25/5/22: Murputja NDW Customer Tap Non Potable Fluoride 2.7mg/L (max), (2.47mg/L av. 2021/22)
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Murputja (South Australia) – Sodium
22/3/22: Murputja NDW Customer Tap Non Potable Sodium 22/3/22 247mg/L (max)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Murputja (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
22/3/22: Murputja TS NDW Non Potable Total Dissolved Solids 1130mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Murputja (South Australia) – Hardness
22/3/22: Murputja TS NDW Non Potable Total Hardness 436mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
10/8/21: Nyapari NDW Customer Tap Non Potable Fluoride 2.4mg/L (max), (2.2mg/L av. 2021/22)
Fluoride
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Nyapari (South Australia) – Sodium
22/3/22: Nyapari NDW Customer Tap Non Potable Sodium 262mg/L (max)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Nyapari (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
22/3/22: Nyapari TS NDW Non Potable Total Dissolved Solids 1220mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Nyapari (South Australia) – Hardness
22/3/22: Nyapari TS NDW Non Potable Total Hardness 450mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
A sample, collected from the distribution system as part of Coliban Water’s sampling
program, had an elevated lead level of (0.023 mg/L), exceeding the health-based guideline value
for lead (0.01mg/L) in the ADWG.
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2018/19 – Goulburn Weir (Victoria) – Blue Green Algae
During the reportable period three incidents were notified to DHHS, including Dookie, Kyabram and Tongala which were directly attributable to unprecedented characteristics of a major BGA bloom in the Central Goulburn Irrigation District. The bloom persisted for more than six months affecting sixteen plants directly in GVW’s Central District. BGA created numerous challenges at the water treatment plants resulting in operational changes on a regular basis to ensure customers continued to receive safe drinking water. Water was carted to one of our regulated towns (Goulburn Weir) during the period their raw water supply was impacted by the BGA as levels exceeded the recreational limit. Water carting continued for a month with routine notifications to the customers affected…
During the reportable period three incidents were notified to DHHS, including Dookie, Kyabram and Tongala which were directly attributable to unprecedented characteristics of a major BGA bloom in the Central Goulburn Irrigation District. The bloom persisted for more than six months affecting sixteen plants directly in GVW’s Central District. BGA created numerous challenges at the water treatment plants resulting in operational changes on a regular basis to ensure customers continued to receive safe drinking water. Water was carted to one of our regulated towns (Goulburn Weir) during the period their raw water supply was impacted by the BGA as levels exceeded the recreational limit. Water carting continued for a month with routine notifications to the customers affected…
During the reportable period three incidents were notified to DHHS, including Dookie, Kyabram and Tongala which were directly attributable to unprecedented characteristics of a major BGA bloom in the Central Goulburn Irrigation District. The bloom persisted for more than six months affecting sixteen plants directly in GVW’s Central District. BGA created numerous challenges at the water treatment plants resulting in operational changes on a regular basis to ensure customers continued to receive safe drinking water. Water was carted to one of our regulated towns (Goulburn Weir) during the period their raw water supply was impacted by the BGA as levels exceeded the recreational limit. Water carting continued for a month with routine notifications to the customers affected…
Holiday makers struck down with vomiting and diarrhoea after visiting Tangalooma off the coast of Brisbane are angry with how the popular island resort handled the drinking water contamination.
Health authorities are investigating the source of the contamination after more than 50 people fell ill with gastroenteritis on Moreton Island in a matter of days.
A spokeswoman for Tangalooma Island Resort said initial tests on the water by authorities returned positive samples of E.coli (Escherichia) bacteria.
“Some of our guests and staff have reported illness consistent with nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, stomach cramps and a general feeling of being unwell,” she said.
Dr Kari Jarvinen from the Metro South Public Health Unit said further testing was being undertaken.
“All guests and staff have been advised to boil their drinking water or use commercially supplied bottled water until the issue is resolved,” Dr Jarvinen said.
“Anyone on the resort or anyone who has recently visited the resort should be alert for symptoms of gastroenteritis and seek medical advice if they have concerns.”
‘Don’t drink the water’
Peter Morris and his partner Samantha had vomiting and diarrhoea after spending a week at the resort.
He said she became quite ill on Saturday night after they had checked out and returned to the Gold Coast.
“I tried very hard to get an after-hours doctor here at Broadbeach and ended up getting an ambulance and she was taken to Robina Hospital,” Mr Morris said.
“She was definitely worse than me and she’s got a medical condition that means that if she can’t take her medicine orally it becomes life-threatening. So she had to have injections.”
Mr Morris said he had heard nothing from the resort despite management saying it had contacted 3,000 guests following the outbreak.
“They have made no attempt to contact me or my friends and they have our email and mobile details,” he said.
“They’re very bad at communication.”
David James, the director of the resort, said staff were contacting 3,000 people who had visited or stayed at the resort over the past few weeks.
“We’re still in that process but [we’ve been] doing that for the last day or so,” he said.
Kate McCorkindale was staying at accommodation near, but not owned, by the resort on the weekend for a friend’s 30th birthday.
She said her group did not find out about the contamination until 24 hours after resort guests were told.
“We found out from other resort guests who came to visit us in our house. We were drinking the water and they said, ‘Oh stop, don’t drink the water’,” she said.
“We were really disappointed with the response.”
Ms McCorkindale said the owner of the house where she was staying was also in the dark.
“Perhaps it wasn’t the resort’s responsibility, but no-one let us know,” she said.
The water supply for the resort and properties surrounding it is run by the resort.
Seven people in her group of 16 had mild cramping and diarrhoea.
A one-year-old was among those who got sick.
It was Courtney Jefferies’s birthday that brought the group to the island.
She said she would write a formal complaint to the resort over the handling of the incident.
“Whilst we were staying in private accommodation we were still staying at their resort, utilising their facilities and drinking their water, and in my view they have a duty of care to all persons,” she said.
“It’s really quite disgusting, the lack of communication.”
Kristy Lambert, who is 15 weeks’ pregnant, was also among the group of 16.
“We had babies staying with us that obviously had formula bottles being made up and being pregnant, water was the only thing I could drink,” she said.
“So I was going to town on the water all day Friday, all day Saturday and it was Saturday afternoon that we then got told from another guest that was staying at the resort, ‘hey, don’t drink the water’.
“It’s a bit daunting to think that something as simple as water could have passed on those germs.”
E.coli bacteria found
Resort director Mr James said when people first started getting sick mid-last week it appeared to be a norovirus outbreak, but on Saturday testing confirmed an E.coli contamination.
“As soon as we found that out we obviously stopped all water supply into the resort itself and we’re supplying all of our guests with water … whilst we work through this issue,” he said.
Mr James said that meant “testing, testing, and more testing” to determine how the contamination happened.
“It’s never happened before and that’s what’s got us a bit stumped here,” he said.
He said the main water reservoir was treated on Saturday and the resort was waiting to see if it would be given the all clear.
“All we’re worried about is making sure everyone has a great holiday,” he said.
About 15 to 20 resort staff were among those to be affected.
A spokeswoman said all the water is sourced from the underground water table and filtered through the resort’s water-treatment plant.
“The quality and safety of our water-treatment facility and water supply is regularly audited by independent experts to meet all regulatory and safety requirements,” she said.
“To date there have been no previous issues of such a contamination in the resort’s long history.”
Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk said the resort has a duty of care to its guests.
“I’ve asked my director-general to immediately send a public health expert over to the island to conduct an examination of that,” she said.
Tangalooma Resort guests told to scrap previous advice as possible groundwater contamination investigated
Health authorities investigating the contamination of drinking water at Tangalooma Island resort are looking into the possibility that sewage or other contaminants have polluted the island’s natural ground water.
Staff and guests are now being told to only use bottled water and scrap previous advice about boiling water.
At least 60 people, including six children, are believed to have fallen ill, from one tour group.
Dr Kari Javenin from Queensland’s Public Health Unit said the bacterial infection may not be avoided by just boiling.
“It is now only commercially bottled water that may be consumed,” Dr Javenin said.
“Previously we said that it is OK to consume bottled water. That has been upgraded due to further information and toxins present in the water that is not comprehensively or completely destroyed by boiling.
“So from now on the advice will be, and this has already been communicated to Tangalooma resort management, consume only commercially bottled water until further notice. And that includes for brushing teeth, also preparing food, washing vegetables.”
He said authorities have not ruled out the potential that the ground water naturally filtered by sand on the island may have been polluted.
“We are looking at each and every potential. That is certainly being looked at among many other things,” Dr Javenin said
“The investigations are still underway and we are getting more expert consultation and further specialised testing will be needed to be carried out to really answer that, but I can assure you that every angle is under consideration.”
A page on the resort’s website said it sourced drinking water from a natural underground water table, which starts about 1.5 metres below the surface of the sand, extending 40 metres below to bedrock.
“As the sand grains on the island are only tiny in size, it is an extremely efficient way of filtering the rainwater and we tap into this and supply the resort with the most pure and natural potable water possible,” the website said.
“The resort only uses a fraction of the water (less than 1 per cent).”
That page has since been deleted.
The state’s chief health officer, Dr Jeannette Young, issued a ‘Public Health Matter of State Significance’ notice on Wednesday, giving investigators greater power.
Health Minister Steven Miles said finding a quick solution to the problem required a joint effort.
“Ultimately this is a responsibility of Tangalooma and Brisbane City Council,” Mr Miles said.
“However, because Tangalooma is really one of the jewels in the tourism crown of our state, this step recognises how important it is that guests from all over the world know that they can visit Tangalooma and do so safely.”
Authorities have ordered the resort to install filters on its taps and immediately increase the treatment to the resort’s pool.
Resort management declined to answer specific questions about the handling of sewage on the island but a spokesman said it was fully cooperating with the investigation.
“The health, comfort and safety of our guests, staff and residents of the island is our priority and we have provided a free alternate bottled water supply, which is available at many points across the resort,” he said.
“We are cooperating fully and following the advice of Queensland Health and Brisbane City Council (BCC) with reservations for current and future guests remaining in place.
“We are awaiting the results of water quality testing being undertaken by Queensland Health, so that we can work with them and BCC to determine the appropriate actions.”
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2018/19: Neerim South (Victoria) – Iron 0.34mg/L (max), 0.02mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
In August 2018 taste and odour issues were identified in the Maffra drinking water supply. The cause was the breakdown of organic material in the raw water. The water treatment powdered activated carbon system was optimised to remove the taste compounds.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/in
MACKAY Regional Council has informed Eton residents that uranium and selenium has been found in the town’s water supply.
In the letter delivered to residents on Monday it said recent monitoring has shown that uranium has been found in one of two bores supplying drinking water to the Eton community slightly above the ADWG health guideline level of 17 micrograms per litre.
Bore 2 levels ranged from 6.84 (0.00684mg/L) to 22.65 (0.02265mg/L).
Council said in the letter “this level is still below World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines of 30 (0.030mg/L) but this bore has now been turned off”.
The remaining bore has levels of uranium that are below the ADWG guideline level.
The reported values for Bore 1 ranged from 6.98 (0.00698mg/L) to 14.33 (0.01433mg/L).
The level of radioactivity has also been measured in the two bores at Eton and both were found to be below the health screening levels in the ADWG.
Under the heading in the letter ‘selenium in drinking water supply at Eton’ it states “monitoring has shown that the level of selenium in the drinking water supplied to the township of Eton has varied over time”.
However, under the current water supply arrangements for Eton, the level of selenium slightly exceeds the current ADWG guideline level of 10 micrograms per litre (0.010mg/L), the letter says.
Reported values varied from 8.96 (0.00896mg/L) to 12.933 (0.012933mg/L).
Eton water is safe to drink
The council has “moved quickly to isolate groundwater supplies at Eton” it says, after elevated levels of uranium were detected in one of the bores.
The amount of uranium detected slightly exceeded the acceptable level as outlined in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines but was below World Health Organisation guidelines.
Engineering and Commercial Infrastructure director Jason Devitt said in a statement there was no risk to the community and the affected bore had been turned off.
“We have taken swift action to stop using the bore and issued letters to all residents to reassure them about the situation,” he said.
Under the ADWG, a health guideline value of 17 micrograms per litre for uranium has been set. The WHO guideline has a limit of 30 micrograms per litre set (0.030 mg/L)
Eton’s supply was found to be 21 micrograms per litre (0.021mg/L).
Council officers and Queensland Health staff will hold community information sessions in Eton over the next two days to answer any questions.
They will be held at Eton Primary School on Tuesday, November 8 from 2pm to 6pm and Wednesday, November 9 from 8am to noon.
Eton’s second groundwater bore remains operational with slightly elevated levels of selenium, which occurs naturally in groundwater supplies.
Mr Devitt said council was considering its long-term options for the Eton water supply.
Queensland Health public health physician, Dr Steven Donohue, said Eton residents should not be concerned about ill-effects from their drinking water.
“The Australian guidelines have very wide safety margins and the uranium and selenium levels detected in the Eton bore are only a minor exceedance,” Dr Donohue said.
“The guidelines are also based on a lifetime of exposure and assume that is the main source of water consumed,” he said.
“However, the reality is people drink water from a variety of sources, so their overall dose of uranium and selenium would probably be lower,” he said.
Uranium water saga continues to frustrate residents
AFTER more than four months of debates and monitoring, Eton residents are still upset and angry with Mackay Regional Council over the quality of their water.
As the council released its most recent results from the ongoing uranium and selenium testing of the community’s two bores, people were left wondering when there would be a solution.
On September 9 last year the council first detected elevated levels of uranium in one of the town’s bores.
The bore was immediately turned off and the town was entirely reliant on one remaining bore, which was discovered to have elevated levels of selenium.
While uranium levels were initially up to 22.65 micrograms per litre, which is above ADWG health guidelines, they were still below World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines of 30 micrograms per litre.
Residents weren’t notified about the uranium until November when the council mailed letters to householders in the area.
The initial outrage led to several community meetings where residents raised their concerns with the council and negotiated a strategy to move forward; however, it has become apparent there was some confusion to what was agreed.
Although the council committed to regular ongoing monitoring of the two bores and to publish the results publicly on its website, Eton residents believed the results would also be sent to their community representative.
This has yet to happen and resident Chris Tancred said he was frustrated by the lack of communication.
“The last contact we had with council was a meeting in Sarina and that was late November,” Mr Tancred said.
“The council was supposed to provide information to Tracey Williams and they didn’t this time.
“I just wish the council were more transparent about what was going on.”
The council’s ongoing monitoring has found fairly consistent levels of uranium and selenium in both bores. A third monitoring bore was drilled close by and the council said initial results were positive.
As elevated uranium levels have only been discovered in one bore, the council’s director of engineering and commercial infrastructure Jason Devitt considered the source to be “naturally found” as there were no results of radioactivity.
He said despite varying levels of uranium across a number of bores reviewed in Eton, Queensland Health had not changed its advice that the water supply was safe to consume.
The council is continuing to investigate options for alternative water supplies for the area, but for Mr Tancred a solution can’t come soon enough.
“If you’ve ever tasted the water here it’s not fine,” he said.
“It stains the tiles, makes a mess of the showers and tastes terrible.
“I’ve gone to the extent of buying enough water tanks where I don’t have to use it because it’s just that bad.”
Mackay Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
Uranium Parameter
Two ‘Eton Treated’ samples were taken on 27 July 2016. One sample was collected whilst Bore 1 only was being run (Eton Treated (Bore 1) sample). The second sample was collected whilst Bore 2 only was being run (Eton Treated (Bore 2) sample). The Eton Treated (Bore 1) sample returned a uranium result of 0.00787 mg/L. The Eton Treated (Bore 2) sample returned a uranium result of 0.0202 mg/L. The Eton Treated (Bore 2) sample uranium result exceeds the ADWG health
value of 0.017 mg/L. These samples were not collected as part of the standard drinking water quality monitoring program and were in fact collected as part of a DWQMP investigation into selenium at Eton (Regulator reference DWI-7-489-00034).
Internal re-analysis of the original sample returned a uranium concentration of 0.017883 mg/L. External re-analysis of the original sample (by ALS) returned a uranium concentration of 0.019 mg/L. Following identification of this exceedance extraction of water from Bore 2 ceased and weekly sampling from within the Eton water supply scheme was undertaken to test for uranium within the supply. A number of Department of Natural Resources and Water (DNRM)
monitoring bores within the area were also sampled.
Eton residents were kept informed of the issue, and a number of public meetings were held. Queensland Health and DEWS were consulted regarding the investigation.
Results of MRC’s investigation did not reveal elevated uranium levels in any of the DNRM bores, in the Eton water supply Bore 1 or in the new monitoring bore that was constructed in the vicinity of the bores supplying water to the Eton water supply scheme.
Sampling within the Eton water supply scheme did not reveal an elevated level of uranium once the extraction of water form Bore 2 ceased. Currently Bore 1 is keeping up with demand from the Eton township.
Investigation into the selenium levels in the Eton water supply is continuing. It was determined that selenium is present in the Eton groundwater bores which are the raw water supply for the
Eton scheme. Regular sampling of the two Eton groundwater bores and the Eton WTP Treated sample point has continued since the non-compliance was identified. Council will continue
to liaise with the regulator and Queensland health on this issue.
GUIDELINE
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of selenium in drinking water should not
exceed 0.01 mg/L.
Selenium and selenium salts are widespread in the environment. Selenium is released from natural and human-made sources, with the main source being the burning of coal. Selenium is also a by-product of the processing of sulfide ores, chiefly in the copper refining industry.
The major use of selenium is in the manufacture of electronic components. It is used in several other industries, and selenium compounds are used in some insecticides, in hair shampoos as an anti-dandruff agent, and as a nutritional feed additive for poultry and livestock.
Selenium concentrations in source waters are generally very low and depend on local geochemistry, pH and the presence of iron salts. Concentrations in drinking water supplies overseas are generally below 0.01 mg/L but groundwater concentrations as high as 6 mg/L have been reported in the United States.”
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“At times colour is above the ADWG guideline criteria….Generally the colour of treated water at GISC is below the ADWG value, however, large spikes were observed in January 2013 due to an increase in the concentration of manganese in the source water.”
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
A turbidity level of 23.6NTU was measured at the Camooweal BP service station sample site on the 27/02/2017 (reported 30/08/2017 due to reporting limit error). It is suspected that the high turbidity is due to the rusty pipes. Samples collected from the same point returned normal readings thereafter andthis was an isolated case. Council is currently updating their water sampling procedures and training. Furthermore, the reporting limit has been adjusted to flag any readings above 1NTU.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Manganese levels vary across the bores. There was one historical abnormal result for Bore 1 that had a reading of 1.2 mg/L which was well above the average of 0.47 mg/L at the time of the last review. The current results revealed lower levels, however one result was 3.3 mg/L and is likely an error. Treated and reticulated water samples for manganese is well below the guideline and do not display any trends within the data.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
2001/18 – Forrest Beach (Queensland) – Iron
2016/17: Forrest Beach (Queensland) – Iron 0.5mg/L (max), 0.36mg/L (av.)
2017/18: Forrest Beach (Queensland) – Iron 0.37mg/L (max), 0.31mg/L (av.)
Iron levels in raw water are quite scattered with the historical maximum sample of 0.39 mg/L. Iron levels in the treated and reticulated water have often exceeded the guideline. The maximum reticulation sample taken for iron had a reading of 0.77 mg/L. There have been five historical instances that have exceeded the ADWG:
• 0.65 mg/L – 20th June 2001 sample taken from water tower (Turbidity levels were also exceeded in this sample).
• 0.9 mg/L – 24 January 2002 sample taken from water tower.
• 0.9 mg/L – 16 July 2002 sample taken from Beatts Road.
• 0.31 mg/L – 8th January 2003 sample taken from water tower.
• 0.39 mg/L – 17 June 2009 sample taken from Pangola Street (pH exceeded guideline in same sample).
We note a number of obvious data entry errors in the results and will be resolved in a future data update. It is expected that raw water source selection will largely resolve this issue
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Forrest Beach (Queensland) – Turbidity
The raw water has high levels of turbidity. Bore 6 has the highest level of turbidity with a maximum value of 215 NTU. Treated water shows scattered levels of turbidity that all fall below the guideline. There was one occurrence where the turbidity level was 5 NTU. Reticulated water had five instances where the sample for turbidity exceeded the guideline aesthetic limit:
• 4.3 NTU – 23 June 2001, sample taken from water tower (Iron levels were also exceeded in this sample).
• 16.5 NTU – 23 January 2002, sample taken from water tower.
• 17.5 NTU – 24 January 2002, sample taken from water tower.
• 15 NTU – 6 March 2002, sample taken from water tower.
• 16 NTU – 10 September 2008, sample taken from water tower.
There were numerous results in the reticulated water where the turbidity was above 1 NTU. Source selection is planned to treat this issue however further work is planned to investigate chlorine disinfection increases to address this issue and is an RMIP action.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2006 – Forrest Beach (Queensland) – Colour
Colour levels in raw water at Forrest Beach are scattered, as shown in , but there are some samples that are quite high. An historical abnormal result of 249 HU occurred in September 2006, but it is hard to determine if this is operator error or a rare occurrence. Colour in treated water has been sampled to be below the guideline, but levels are quite high with many samples being over 10 HU. Reticulated water showed a similar result with one ample being 17 HU. Selection of raw water sources may have a positive effect on this issue. Soda Ash is used in Scheme 2 and may be replicated here, however to minimise expense, switching raw water sources in currently considered the most appropriate solution.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
No E. Coli has been detected in the water samples since 1995, with 3 instances occurring in March 1995. A summary of the findings is below: The bacterial testing for E. Coli in the reticulated system for scheme 1 shows that the water supply has meet ADWG 99.54% between 1982 to 2011 with 2188 samples being taken. It is also evident that no breaches of the guideline have occurred since 1995.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Ingham (Queensland) – Fluoride
The raw water sources for Scheme 1 have low presence of fluoride, but an abnormal result was recorded for the Herbert River in 2006. It is thought that this is operator error when entering the sampling data into a spreadsheet. The result showed a reading of 9.1 mg/L of fluoride in the raw water sample which is much higher than the average of 0.4 mg/L in the 28 samples that are available for the river. Fluoride levels in treated water are well below the ADWG. Reticulated water also shows low levels of fluoride in the system
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Turbidity in the Herbert is quite high and increases during the wet season and has been designated as a backup supply. As the Herbert source is not often used, the turbidity was a maximum of 18 NTU in the past 5 years. Turbidity in the groundwater is usually <1.0 NTU and therefore is used as the primary supply. Prior to 1996 the Herbert River was the only source water for Scheme 1 until the bore fields south of Ingham were constructed. A result of 8 NTU was recorded at Hunter Street on 14th July 2003. Operational controls are planned to ensure
raw water sources are selected based on turbidity QCP and CCP limits.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2012/20 – Ingham (Queensland) – Colour
The Herbert River exceeds the guideline for colour during heavy rainfall periods, but to avoid any exceedances sourcing water from the river is avoided during high flow. There were high levels of colour in the raw water from the Herbert with a maximum recorded value of 47 HU. The samples taken for colour in treated water and reticulated water respectively in Scheme 1 to be under the ADWG. A trend that can be identified in the sampling is the increase of colour in the Herbert River during high rainfalls. Due to only a small number of samples for the bores in Scheme 1 it is hard to identify if flooding affects the colour in bore water. It is evident in Como Road Bore 5 that increase in water colour occurred when the river recorded had a high peak in water colour
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2006/20 – Ingham (Queensland) – Iron Raw Water
Iron levels in the Herbert River are significantly higher than iron recorded from the groundwater bores. The historical iron levels in the raw water from the Herbert are generally below the guideline with the maximum level recorded being 0.32 mg/L. However, the past 5 years showed low levels
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Residents of the town of Bingara in northern New South Wales have been told their drinking water contains high levels of arsenic.
The Gwydir Shire council says it has met with health and state government officials and has been told the arsenic will not pose a safety risk for most people.
But Mayor Mark Coulton says very small children may be at risk and has warned mothers not to use town water supplies to mix baby formula.
“They’re concerned about infants under nine months mixing formula with the water,” he said.
“There’s no risk to adults or older children. It’s way below the world’s acceptable levels of arsenic but its high for NSW standards.”
Gwydir Shire Council says it is waiting for the results of testing to try to narrow down the source of an arsenic contamination that is affecting Bingara’s water supply in north-west New South Wales.
While the water is safe for most people to drink, mothers with nursing babies have been warned not to use it to mix infant formula.
General manager Max Eastcott says samples from various points on the Gwydir River have been sent away for analysis.
“Hopefully from that we’ll be able to pinpoint at least the general locality of the source of arsenic so that we can concentrate our efforts in those particular locations to find out where it’s coming from,” he said.
Funding on track for Bingara water treatment plant
Bingara will have its new water treatment plant in operation by March 2010, according to Member for Northern Tablelands, Richard Torbay.
He said Minister for Water Phil Costa had confirmed the government would fund 67 per cent of the tender price, following a meeting with a delegation from Gwydir Council including Mayor Bob Tremain, Deputy David Rose and General Manager Max Eastcott at Parliament House last week.
“When he was Water Minister Premier Rees made a commitment and it is good to see the new Minister is honouring that,” Mr Torbay said.
“Bingara has a clear need for this plant, not only because of some pollution from old mines in the area but because a community of 1200 people is entitled to the best quality water supply.
“Council could not afford to contribute 50 per cent as is usually required with this type of funding but there are special considerations in this case and the government has responded positively to them.
“I have been pleased to work with the Council and the community on this project and it’s great to see that it can now move ahead.”
“The urgent need for a filtration plant at Bingara came to a head in 2006 when traces of arsenic from old silver, gold and arsenic mines were found in the water supply,” Mr Torbay said.
“Bingara’s water has always been pumped from the Gwydir River which at times carries the pollution from the abandoned mines upstream.”
An assessment of the level of filtration needed has been completed and with the funding approval Council will call for tenders early in the new year.
The new plant is expected to be in operation by the end of the first quarter in 2010.
2011-13: Deepwater (New South Wales) – Aluminium ~1.05mg/L (max)
From a total of 9 samples, five exceedances occurred from Dec 2011 to Sept 2013. Although not a health value, the ADWG strongly recommended to keep Aluminium concentrations as low as possible, preferable to below 0.1 mg/L.Council commented that since changing the coagulant from an aluminium sulphate to Ultrion there has been no Aluminium exceedances. Exceedances in Aluminium may be an issue for dialysis patients. Council maintains a register of dialysis patients in the Local Government Area to be informed if Aluminium exceeds guidelines.
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
From a total of 508 samples, 14 detections occurred from 2003 to 2013. The majority of detections occurred in 2004, including the highest detection of 19 cfu/100 ml on 25 Feb. Since 2008, one E.coli was detected on 22 May 2012. Detection dates: 25/02/04, 24/03/04, 21/04/04, 19/05/04, 16/06/04, 01/12/04, 30/11/2005, 08/03/06, 04/10/06, 01/11/06, 28/03/07, 08/10/08, 05/11/08, 22/05/12It is noted that prior to 2008, there were at least 2 exceedances per year. After 2008, only one exceedance occurred in May 2012.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Glen Innes (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2003-13: Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Turbidity. 29.6NTU (max), 0.7NTU (mean)
From a total of 115 samples, two exceedances of turbidity have occurred from 2003 to 2013. The exceedances of 29.6 and 6 NTU occurred on 21 Jan 2004 and 8 Jul 2009, respectively.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Colour
2003-13: Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Colour. 68HU (max), 3HU (mean)
“At times colour is above the ADWG guideline criteria….Generally the colour of treated water at GISC is below the ADWG value, however, large spikes were observed in January 2013 due to an increase in the concentration of manganese in the source water.”
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Fluoride
2003-13: Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Fluoride 1.93mg/L (max), 0.95mg/L (mean)
From a total of 116 samples, there was one exceedance occurring 7 Feb 2012, with a fluoride concentration of 1.93 mg/L. Weekly fluoride monitoring performed by Council has detected 2 fluoride exceedances out of 680 samples.
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Iron
2003-13: Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Iron 1.65mg/L (max), 0.04mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Aluminium
2003-13: Glenn Innes (New South Wales) – Aluminium 1.17mg/L (max), 0.09mg/L (mean)
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
TENTERFIELD residents are urged to take caution when using water due to poor raw water quality.
Tenterfield Shire Council said recent fires at the Tenterfield water supply dam have caused problems with water treatment, making drinking water in the Tenterfield township unsafe.
Council said all water used for drinking or food preparation should be brought to a rolling boil to make it safe.
Bushfires and drought leave NSW town of Tenterfield without clean water for 72 days
Turbidity levels in the Tenterfield dam have been measured at 60 times the World Health Organisation’s limits
For 72 days, but who is counting, residents of the New South Wales town of Tenterfield have been told to boil their drinking water.
Straight from the tap it reeks of bushfire smoke and heavy doses of chlorine. The community’s filtration system, built in 1932, cannot cope effectively with turbidity levels in the Tenterfield dam that have recently been measured at 60 times the World Health Organisation’s limits. The town’s swimming pool has been closed indefinitely through weeks of extreme heat.
“I don’t think anybody has any idea about how bad it really is here just in this locality,” says Helen Duroux, a Kamilaroi traditional owner and chief executive of the Moombahlene Local Aboriginal Land Council.
“When you get to the stage where you can’t turn the tap on and get a drink of water out of it then something is severely wrong.
“It is depressing. We’ve been through a whole range of catastrophes that have brought us to this place to where we can’t drink our water. I’m not the only one asking: where is it going to end, how is it going to end?”
The Tenterfield shire council began advising residents to boil water in early October when the dam levels dropped to about 18% – within months of when the town and its surrounds were expected to run dry.
In late November, a storm brought hail and heavy rain and almost two months’ supply of water. The storm also badly damaged silt traps designed to prevent sediment entering the dam and swept massive amounts of ash and debris from recent bushfires into the catchment.
Images sent to Guardian Australia, taken during a fishing competition held at the dam on 1 December, show large numbers of dead Murray cod, some more than 1m long, and other fish species washed on to the banks.
Residents say the town water supply has at different times smelled of fish, bushfire smoke and chlorine.
“You don’t even feel like having a shower in it”, Duroux says. “Everywhere I turn people are saying you can’t even turn your tap on without that smell coming into your kitchen. We’ve still got to wash up in it, we’ve still got to bathe in it. It’s the saddest situation I’ve ever been in I think.
“My memories of growing up here has always been a beautiful place, beautiful fresh air, beautiful drinking water. I’m very saddened by the way everything has changed in such a short amount of time. We don’t know if it’s ever going to be like that again.”
A worst-case scenario
Stuart Khan, a water security expert from the University of NSW, says the combination of drought, bushfire and a one-off heavy rainfall event is a “worst case scenario” for water supply in areas where facilities are often outdated and not able to cope with extreme circumstances.
“You’ve got a combination of events happening,” Khan says. “First of all you’ve got a drought which means the catchment is very dry. It also means the reservoir level is very low and there’s no opportunity to dilute new flows that come in.
“Fire followed by heavy rain will wash ash into the waterways. There’s also a lot more erosion because you don’t have the trees and roots holding the ground together. Having a reservoir full of soil and sediment and ash is in itself a real problem because it makes water treatment processes more difficult.”
Khan says the strong chlorine smell in Tenterfield’s tap water is probably the result of larger than usual doses being used to kill bacteria.
“When you have high turbidity, that consumes a lot of the chlorine [used to treat the water],” he says. “You have to super-dose the chlorine to … achieve a certain residual concentration. They would be ramping that up.”
Khan says a fish kill in the dam is “exactly what you would expect” from the bushfire ash, which would have created a chemical reaction and taken oxygen from the water supply. He says that despite treatment processes there remains a risk to human health in similar circumstances.
“These might seem like exceptional circumstances but they’re circumstances that can be anticipated to occur. There’s a very strong argument that a lot of towns in New South Wales don’t have the resilience in their drinking water supplies to get through these sorts of scenarios.”
The Tenterfield shire mayor, Peter Petty, says the council is doing everything it can to resolve the situation, including ordering a temporary reverse osmosis treatment system that – combined with water from a new bore – should eliminate the smoky taste and odour within weeks.
Petty says water that passes through the treatment process is tested twice daily to ensure it meets health department guidelines.
“There have been some concerns and people asking for advice and what council is doing. Council is doing everything we can, plus some, to relieve the community of this problem.”
He says the old treatment plant’s “use-by date has passed” and the council has plans to build a new one within two years.
‘People shouldn’t be scared’
Tenterfield holds a special place in the Australian story; the birthplace of Federation and the bush town memorialised by the entertainer Peter Allen, whose grandfather George Woolnough sat on his High Street verandah and made his saddles.
There are stunning million-dollar Federation-era homes set across from places where the realities of remote Australian communities are writ large; a 10% unemployment rate and an ageing community isolated from services.
Few residents question the efforts of local authorities to find an alternative water supply and fix their water problems, but many are angry that temporary measures have not been taken to bring in a supply of fresh and clean drinking water in the meantime.
“If it smells, then it’s not an acceptable clean water source. People shouldn’t have to be scared of the drinking water coming out of the taps,” says Luanna Legge, a local artist who has started Tenterfield Water Relief, a charity to distribute clean water to community members.
On Wednesday, Legge handed out about 2,600L of clean water to several hundred families. She says demand was overwhelming and that speaking to residents about their experiences was shocking.
“I had people with five kids telling me they had to put contaminated water in their kids’ formula because they couldn’t boil or refrigerate enough at a time,” she said.
The charity water scenario is increasingly familiar as towns face “day zero” – the end of their water supply – with desperate residents accessing supply brought by community groups rather than governments. Legge says she has been assisted by Russell and Sue Wantling, who started Granite Belt Water Relief across the Queensland border in Stanthorpe.
The water comes from the Wivenhoe Dam, less than three hours’ drive to the north, which supplies south-east Queensland.
“I’m doing my best but in the long-term I don’t think it’s a feasible option for people to be setting up charities to bring people clean drinking water, I feel like it should be a government responsibility,” Legge says.
“There are a lot of children here who are about to have one of the worst Christmases of their lives and that doesn’t seem that reasonable that the reason they’re having to have such a tough time is that governments have left us high and dry.
“I feel incredibly angry to be honest. I know a lot of people feel depressed and rejected at being forgotten about. After the horrific fires we’ve experienced here and all the financial burden of the drought these are taxpaying citizens. They pay their rates. These are good people. There’s no justifiable reason why governments shouldn’t be providing them water.”
Legge says the United Nations and World Health Organisation guidelines say drinking water should be an acceptable taste, colour and odour, but that she had obtained legal advice that Australian law was insufficient to force government action in the circumstances.
“We’ve now been living like this for 70 days and I’ve not heard the slightest skerrick of concern for people here,” Legge says. “If people in Sydney were being forced to live the way people in Tenterfield are forced to live, they would be outraged.
“A town of 4,000 people who have been bathing in contaminated water every day for 72 days. Are they going to send someone to see if we’re OK? Where are they?”
2007/2012 – Tenterfield (New South Wales) – E.coli
From a total of 279 samples, 25 E. coli detections. 200cfu/100mL (max)
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2007/12 Tenterfield (NSW) – Iron
2007/12 – Tenterfield (NSW) – Iron 1.86mg/L (max), 0.693mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2007/12 – Tenterfield (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2007/12: Tenterfield (New South Wales) Turbidity 14.2NTU (max), 4.07 NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Tenterfield (New South Wales) Nickel
2007/12: Tenterfield (New South Wales) Nickel 0.03mg/L (max), 0.075mg/L (mean)
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
From a total of 271 samples, 4 E. coli detections. 14cfu/100mL (max)
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2007/12 Kyogle (NSW) – Lead
2007/12 – Kyogle (NSW) – Lead 0.024mg/L (max) 0.0038mg/L (mean)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2007/12 Kyogle (NSW) – Iron
2007/12 – Kyogle (NSW) – Iron 1.4mg/L (max), 0.3391mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2007/12 – Kyogle (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2007/12: Kyogle (New South Wales) Turbidity 17.7NTU (max), 3.4091 NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
19/6/2012: Byron Bay (New South Wales) – Turbidity
19/6/2012: Bay Street, Byron Bay (New South Wales) Turbidity 24 NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2017 – Lower Bellingen (New South Wales) – Chlorine
2017: Lower Belligen (New South Wales) – Free Chlorine 41mg/L (max), 0.8794mg/L (mean)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2016 – Lower Bellingen (NSW) Iron
2016: Lower Bellingen (NSW) Iron 0.43mg/L (max), 0.1232 (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2017: Dorrigo (New South Wales) Turbidity 8.73 NTU (max), 0.6472 NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2013-14: Dorrigo (New South Wales) – pH (alkaline)
2013: Dorrigo (New South Wales) pH 8.9 (av)
2014: Dorrigo (New South Wales) pH 8.65 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2008/13 – Crescent Head (New South Wales) – E.coli
1 positive result from 329 samples. 14mpn/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2008/13 – Crescent Head (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2008/13: Crescent Head (New South Wales) Turbidity 16.5NTU (max), 4.51NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2008/13 – Crescent Head (New South Wales) – Chlorine
2008/13: Crescent Head (New South Wales) – Free Chlorine 7.25mg/L (max), 0.84mg/L (mean)
Free chlorine levels exceeding the health guideline value of 5.0 mg/L were measured on 8 December 2014 from the chlorine sampling point for the Athelstane Range Reservoir B. In situ free chlorine levels within the reservoir were measured at 5.4 and 8.8 mg/L. The short-lived spikes in free chlorine residual recorded during the event were caused by a power outage as a result of a recent thunderstorm and lightning strike which led to dosing occurring due to a faulty inlet flow meter.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Crescent Head (New South Wales) – Colour
2008/13: Crescent Head Colour 16HU (max), 7.2HU (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2008/2013 – Stuarts Point (New South Wales) – E.coli
From a total of 298 samples, 1 E. coli detection. 1mpn/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2008/13 Stuarts Point (NSW) – Lead
2008/13 – Stuarts Point (NSW) – Lead 0.022mg/L (max) 0.0014mg/L (mean)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2008/13 Stuarts Point (NSW) – Iron
2008/13 – Stuarts Point (NSW) – Iron 2.79mg/L (max), 0.21mg/L (mean)
From a total of 246 samples, 5 exceedances occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014. The ADWG value for iron based on aesthetic considerations is 0.3 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2008/13 – Stuarts Point (New South Wales) – Arsenic
2008/13: Stuarts Point Arsenic 0.03mg/L (max), 0.0026mg/L (mean)
Arsenic: Australian Drinking Water Guideline = 0.01mg/L
Arsenic is bioaccumulative and symptoms may take 10-15 years to develop after expsoure at high levels. Drinking water can be contaminated with inorganic arsenic through wind blown dust, leaching or runoff from soil, rocks and sediment. Groundwater sources such as bores will usually have higher arsenic levels than surface water. In major Australian reticulated water supplies concentrations of arsenic range up to 0.015mg/L, with typical values less than
0.005mg/L. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/ehu/2676.pdf
2008/13 – Stuarts Point (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2008/13: Stuarts Point (New South Wales) Turbidity 9.73NTU (max), 0.63 NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2008/13: Hat Head (New South Wales) – Iron 0.54mg/L (max), 0.41 (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2008/13 – South West Roacks (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2008/13: South West Rocks (New South Wales) – Turbidity 6.9NTU (max), 0.4NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2008/13: Willawarrin (New South Wales) Aluminium 0.56mg/L (max), 0.05mg/L (mean)
Australian Guideline: Aluminium 0.2mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2008/13 – Willawarrin (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2008/13: Willawarrin (New South Wales) – Turbidity 9.8NTU (max), 0.73NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2008/13: Bellbrook (New South Wales) Aluminium 0.61mg/L (max), 0.086mg/L (mean)
Australian Guideline: Aluminium 0.2mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2008/13 – Bellbrook (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2008/13: Bellbrook (New South Wales) – Turbidity 11.5NTU (max), 0.81NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2008/13 Bellbrook (New South Wales) – Iron
2008/13: Bellbrook (New South Wales) – Iron 0.31mg/L (max), 0.053 (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
24/2/21: Daintree Shire Hall (Qld) Chlorates 0.635mg/L.
15/12/21: Daintree Shire Hall (Qld) Chlorates 0.586mg/L.
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process. Queensland Health have a chlorate guideline of 0.8mg/L
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Daintree (Queensland) – Colour
2009/10: Daintree Colour 15HU (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Free chlorine levels exceeding the health guideline value of 5.0 mg/L were measured on 8 December 2014 from the chlorine sampling point for the Athelstane Range Reservoir B. In situ free chlorine levels within the reservoir were measured at 5.4 and 8.8 mg/L. The short-lived spikes in free chlorine residual recorded during the event were caused by a power outage as a result of a recent thunderstorm and lightning strike which led to dosing occurring due to a faulty inlet flow meter.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Whyanbeel (Queensland) Iron
2011/12: Whyanbeel Iron 0.47mg/L (max)
2012/13: Whyanbeel Iron 0.7mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Whyanbeel (Queensland) – Colour
2009/10: Whyanbeel Colour 16HU (max)
2011/12: Whyanbeel Colour 13HU (max)
2012/13: Whyanbeel Colour 21HU (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Whyanbeel (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2009/10: Wyhanbeel pH 8.6 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Mossman (Queensland) Iron
2012/13: Mossman (Qld) Iron 0.51mg/L (max), 0.05mg/L (av.)
2014/23: Mossman (Qld) Iron 0.43mg/L (max), 0.008mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Mossman (Queensland) – Colour
2008/09: Mossman Colour 65HU (max) 3.8HU (av.)
2009/10: Mossman Colour 46HU (max) 2.7HU (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Mossman (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2008/09: Mossman pH 8.7 (av.)
2009/10: Mossman pH 8.6 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Coen Water Supply had a non-compliance in July 2018. The sampling site at the depot returned a result of 1 CFU/100ml for E. coli. The non-compliance was reported to the regulator on the 07/07/2018. Water lines in the depot area were flushed and the follow up samplestaken had nil detection for E.coli. The Coen depot is the end of the water line andfeeds the two depot houses. At the time of the non-compliance, one house was empty and the residents of the other were on holiday, therefore there was minimal water use on that line.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
The levels of calcium in Coonamble’s water supply are very close to that suggested in ADWG causing some difficulties to users, particularly with scale on electrical appliances and evaporative air conditioners.
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2017/18: Coonamble (New South Wales) Iron
The presence of iron in the town water supplies has been a problem since the introduction of reticulated water over 50 years ago. Dissolved iron leads to rust stained water that not only impacts on the washing of clothes, but also leads to visible stains on sinks, toilets and the exterior of buildings. The removal of iron from reticulated water will rectify these problems…
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
16th November 2018 Coonamble Shire Council- Quambone
Boil Water Alert
Council testing has revealed contamination of the Quambone water supply
with E.Coli bacteria.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2017/18: Quambone (New South Wales) – Iron
The water supply in Quambone is also from groundwater sources similar to Coonamble. As such is has essentially the same water quality issues. Quambone water typically contains:
Dissolved Iron 0.3 to 3.5mg/L (0.3mg/L ADWG limit). Other chemicals Occasional sample exceeding ADWG
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
The water supply in Gulargambone is drawn from the same aquafer as Coonamble; however regular testing program undertaken to date indicates that the Gulargambone water supply quality meets the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) current records show that only iron exceeds ADWG limits. Gulargambone water typically contains: Dissolved Iron 0.3 to 2.0 mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Cowra has implemented a boil water alert for supply to Koorawatha, a small village of 260 people. The supply is chlorinated but supply is via a long (30 km) main without re-chlorination. Council is rectifying this situation.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
NSW Health had recorded 2 high fluoride values of 2.04 and 2.29 in reticulation system on 30th of June and 20th of October in 2015 respectively. Hence NSW Health advised to shut down the fluoridation plant from 23/10/2016. Existing system gives 93 % compliance to critical control operational limits.The existing fluoridation plant (system), has been already identified to replace in 2016, under NSW Health funds since it did not meet the requirement of the New South Wales Code of Practice for Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies 2011, in a number of areas…
The existing Fluoridation system is not compliant with the NSW guidelines. There were 513 noncompliance incidents were recorded over a period of 8 years and the percentage of excedences is 21%. There is a trend of increasing fluoride concentration with current operation. However, the fluoridation system was shut down from 23rdof October 2015, due to reporting of high concentration of fluoride in reticulation system.
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
The upgrade of Gunning’s water supply is flowing along, with a construction contract set to be awarded in February.
Residents had to boil water to drink earlier this year after floods caused the supply to turn a tainted, dirty brown colour.
“There was a lot of concern with the water quality in Gunning. The community just felt it wasn’t good enough,” Luke Moloney from Upper Lachlan Shire Council said.
He said council and the community lobbied to receive $9.7 million in funding to put in a treatment plant, reservoir and pumping station in Gunning and a new water supply for Dalton.
Although Gunning’s treatment plant improvements are underway, the changes for Dalton are still up in the air.
When the funding was announced, Dalton was set to get a reverse osmosis treatment plant, generally used to purify seawater.
Mr Moloney said the problem with reverse osmosis was that the water security issue wouldn’t be addressed.
And he said reverse osmosis was expensive.
“The options we’re talking about are a big capital cost for such a small town like Dalton.”
Council is now considering whether to put in a treatment plant or a 12 kilometre pipeline from Gunning’s upgraded supply.
“The preferred option being that which provides the least life cycle cost, provides the highest level of service and is affordable to the Dalton community,” Upper Lachlan’s general manager John Bell said in a statement.
Some residents are worried the upgrade is linked to the potential construction of a gas-fired power plant near the village.
However, council said the upgrade is necessary to provide a reliable supply that complies with Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“The Dalton town water supply is sourced from two groundwater bores located within the village,” Mr Bell said. “The bore water is of poor quality with elevated salts, hardness and iron levels.”
Dalton’s Chris Morgan questioned whether the village could be self sufficient with tanks. Or if council could upgrade the water quality at residents’ homes instead of at the source.
“I wonder if it would be more economical to install water filters at Dalton homes that are already on town water?” he asked.
Mr Moloney said filters would be something council would look into but it would be unlikely they would revert back to using tank water.
“Once a town water system is put in place it’s difficult… to take it away,” he said.
The options for Dalton will be looked into further once the tenders for Gunning are awarded.
Mr Moloney said once started, the Gunning construction is expected to take around 12 months.
The upgrade of Gunning’s water supply is flowing along, with a construction contract set to be awarded in February.
Residents had to boil water to drink earlier this year after floods caused the supply to turn a tainted, dirty brown colour.
“There was a lot of concern with the water quality in Gunning. The community just felt it wasn’t good enough,” Luke Moloney from Upper Lachlan Shire Council said.
He said council and the community lobbied to receive $9.7 million in funding to put in a treatment plant, reservoir and pumping station in Gunning and a new water supply for Dalton.
Although Gunning’s treatment plant improvements are underway, the changes for Dalton are still up in the air.
When the funding was announced, Dalton was set to get a reverse osmosis treatment plant, generally used to purify seawater.
Mr Moloney said the problem with reverse osmosis was that the water security issue wouldn’t be addressed.
And he said reverse osmosis was expensive.
“The options we’re talking about are a big capital cost for such a small town like Dalton.”
Council is now considering whether to put in a treatment plant or a 12 kilometre pipeline from Gunning’s upgraded supply.
“The preferred option being that which provides the least life cycle cost, provides the highest level of service and is affordable to the Dalton community,” Upper Lachlan’s general manager John Bell said in a statement.
Some residents are worried the upgrade is linked to the potential construction of a gas-fired power plant near the village.
However, council said the upgrade is necessary to provide a reliable supply that complies with Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“The Dalton town water supply is sourced from two groundwater bores located within the village,” Mr Bell said. “The bore water is of poor quality with elevated salts, hardness and iron levels.”
Dalton’s Chris Morgan questioned whether the village could be self sufficient with tanks. Or if council could upgrade the water quality at residents’ homes instead of at the source.
“I wonder if it would be more economical to install water filters at Dalton homes that are already on town water?” he asked.
Mr Moloney said filters would be something council would look into but it would be unlikely they would revert back to using tank water.
“Once a town water system is put in place it’s difficult… to take it away,” he said.
The options for Dalton will be looked into further once the tenders for Gunning are awarded.
Mr Moloney said once started, the Gunning construction is expected to take around 12 months.
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of selenium in drinking water should not
exceed 0.01 mg/L.
Selenium and selenium salts are widespread in the environment. Selenium is released from natural and human-made sources, with the main source being the burning of coal. Selenium is also a by-product of the processing of sulfide ores, chiefly in the copper refining industry.
The major use of selenium is in the manufacture of electronic components. It is used in several other industries, and selenium compounds are used in some insecticides, in hair shampoos as an anti-dandruff agent, and as a nutritional feed additive for poultry and livestock.
Selenium concentrations in source waters are generally very low and depend on local geochemistry, pH and the presence of iron salts. Concentrations in drinking water supplies overseas are generally below 0.01 mg/L but groundwater concentrations as high as 6 mg/L have been reported in the United States.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Dunedoo – New South Wales – Hardness
18/3/22: Dunedoo Hardness 402.4mg/L
28/9/21: Dunedoo Hardness 413.6mg/L
24/3/21: Dunedoo Hardness 373.7mg/L
10/3/21: Dunedoo Hardness 425.7mg/L
15/9/20: Dunedoo Hardness 350mg/L
9/3/20: Dunedoo Hardness 382.6mg/L
26/3/19: Dunedoo Hardness 352.6mg/L
25/9/18: Dunedoo Hardness 409.3mg/L
22/5/18: Dunedoo Hardness 418.4mg/L
25/9/17: Dunedoo Hardness 397.4mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Dunedoo – New South Wales – Total Dissolved Solids
15/3/22: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 694mg/L
28/9/21: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 673mg/L
24/3/21: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 648mg/L
10/3/21: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 655mg/L
9/3/20: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 675mg/L
26/3/19: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 757mg/L
25/9/18: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 598mg/L
22/5/18: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 626mg/L
25/9/17: Dunedoo Total Dissolved Solids 612mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Binnaway – New South Wales – Hardness
26/3/19: Binnaway Hardness 219.7mg/L
2/10/18: Binnaway Hardness 226.8mg/L
21/5/18: Binnaway Hardness 342.3mg/L
3/10/17: Binnaway Hardness 208.1mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Binnaway – New South Wales – Total Dissolved Solids
26/3/19: Binnaway Total Dissolved Solids 899mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
23/4/19: Bugaldie (New South Wales) – Turbidity 6.35 NTU
27/3/19: Bugaldie (New South Wales) – Turbidity 5.54 NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2019 Bugaldie (New South Wales) – Iron
27/3/19: Bugaldie (New South Wales) – Iron 0.35mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Anyone connected to a water supply system can be affected by discoloured water. Historically, Goldenfields Water experiences an increase in reports of discoloured water in the Oura and Mount Arthur water supply schemes covering areas such as Junee, West Wyalong, Temora, Coolamon and Ganmain. This is mainly due to the groundwater source having high and fluctuating levels of iron and manganese.
In these areas, service disruptions due to discoloured water can be an isolated issue with most affected customers located at the ‘dead end’ water main or downstream from a water mains failure where discoloured water travels to the customer. These locations may require regular flushing which is varied based on seasonal water demand, age of infrastructure and varying levels of iron and manganese in the groundwater source water.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Anyone connected to a water supply system can be affected by discoloured water. Historically, Goldenfields Water experiences an increase in reports of discoloured water in the Oura and Mount Arthur water supply schemes covering areas such as Junee, West Wyalong, Temora, Coolamon and Ganmain. This is mainly due to the groundwater source having high and fluctuating levels of iron and manganese.
In these areas, service disruptions due to discoloured water can be an isolated issue with most affected customers located at the ‘dead end’ water main or downstream from a water mains failure where discoloured water travels to the customer. These locations may require regular flushing which is varied based on seasonal water demand, age of infrastructure and varying levels of iron and manganese in the groundwater source water.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Anyone connected to a water supply system can be affected by discoloured water. Historically, Goldenfields Water experiences an increase in reports of discoloured water in the Oura and Mount Arthur water supply schemes covering areas such as Junee, West Wyalong, Temora, Coolamon and Ganmain. This is mainly due to the groundwater source having high and fluctuating levels of iron and manganese.
In these areas, service disruptions due to discoloured water can be an isolated issue with most affected customers located at the ‘dead end’ water main or downstream from a water mains failure where discoloured water travels to the customer. These locations may require regular flushing which is varied based on seasonal water demand, age of infrastructure and varying levels of iron and manganese in the groundwater source water.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Anyone connected to a water supply system can be affected by discoloured water. Historically, Goldenfields Water experiences an increase in reports of discoloured water in the Oura and Mount Arthur water supply schemes covering areas such as Junee, West Wyalong, Temora, Coolamon and Ganmain. This is mainly due to the groundwater source having high and fluctuating levels of iron and manganese.
In these areas, service disruptions due to discoloured water can be an isolated issue with most affected customers located at the ‘dead end’ water main or downstream from a water mains failure where discoloured water travels to the customer. These locations may require regular flushing which is varied based on seasonal water demand, age of infrastructure and varying levels of iron and manganese in the groundwater source water.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Anyone connected to a water supply system can be affected by discoloured water. Historically, Goldenfields Water experiences an increase in reports of discoloured water in the Oura and Mount Arthur water supply schemes covering areas such as Junee, West Wyalong, Temora, Coolamon and Ganmain. This is mainly due to the groundwater source having high and fluctuating levels of iron and manganese.
In these areas, service disruptions due to discoloured water can be an isolated issue with most affected customers located at the ‘dead end’ water main or downstream from a water mains failure where discoloured water travels to the customer. These locations may require regular flushing which is varied based on seasonal water demand, age of infrastructure and varying levels of iron and manganese in the groundwater source water.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Jan 2019 – Eurobodella (NSW) – Lead 0.012mg/L (av)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Eurobodella South (New South Wales) – Aluminium
Jan 2018: Aluminium 0.28mg/L (av)
Dec 2018: Aluminium 0.3mg/L (av)
June 2017: Aluminium 0.37mg/L (av)
Australian Guideline: Aluminium 0.2mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2019 Jan Eurobodella South (New South Wales) – Iron
2019 Jan: Eurobodella South (New South Wales) – Iron 0.195mg/L (mean)
2018 Dec: Eurobodella South (New South Wales) – Iron 0.22mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Eurobodella South (New South Wales) – pH (alkaline)
2016 April: Eurobodella South 8.98 (av)
2016 June: Eurobodella South 8.67 (av)
2016 July: Eurobodella South 8.61 (av)
2016 August: Eurobodella South 8.56 (av)
2015 April: Eurobodella South 8.6 (av)
2015 June: Eurobodella South 8.8 (av)
2015 July: Eurobodella South 8.85 (av)
2015 August: Eurobodella South 8.56 (av)
2015 December: Eurobodella South 8.61 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Eurobodella South – New South Wales – Hardness
2015 March: Eurobodella South (New South Wales) – Hardness 330.8mg/L (av)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
From a total of 265 samples, 2 E.coli detections occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014.
Detection dates: 14 Sept 2010 and 30 Jan 2013 at sample sites 512 and 510 respectively. In
both instances 1 cfu/100 mL and 2 cfu/100mL of total coliforms was detected. Re‐sampling was
undertaken with no E. coli detected.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2004-14 Bemboka (New South Wales) – Iron
From a total of 21 samples, there were 13 exceedances from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014. The
ADWG value for iron is based on aesthetic considerations is 0.3 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2010 – Bemboka (New South Wales) – Copper
From a total of 21 samples, one exceedance occured from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014. The high
copper exceedance was 2.05 mg/L at sample site 513 on 15 Nov 2010.
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should
not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
Bega Valley Shire Council issues boil-water notice from Brogo to Bermagui
11 Jan 22 (aboutregional.com.au)
The combination of heavy rainfall and summer visitors to southeast NSW has led to Bega Valley Shire Council issuing a boil-water notice for users connected to the Brogo-Bermagui water supply.
Boiling water before use for drinking, food preparation, teeth cleaning and ice-making is now considered essential for water users in Quaama, Cobargo, Bermagui, Beauty Point, Fairhaven, Wallaga Lake, Wallaga Lake Heights, Wallaga Lake Koori Village and Akolele.
Water issues are not new to Bega Valley communities, but they have been somewhat mitigated in recent times by the temporary water treatment facility in Brogo.
Bega Valley Shire Council’s water and sewer services manager, Chris Best, said the Brogo facility is struggling to manage the current increase in demand, and his team has been “working around the clock” since heavy rain on Thursday, 6 January, 2022.
“With more visitors in the area during the summer break, it has reached the point where the treatment plant can no longer cope with the higher demand,” he said.
“The temporary plant has reduced the need for boil-water notices since introducing flocculation technology, but even this has its limits which is why we are in the process of constructing a permanent treatment and filtration plant at the same site.”
Mr Best said that when the permanent facility is up and running – expected in late 2022 – the Brogo-Bermagui water supply will no longer require boiling after heavy rain events.
“We have previously avoided boil-water notices by carting water from our southern supply, however given the increase in usage at this time of year, this is currently not possible,” he said.
“Our water team will continue with a regular program of testing water from the Brogo River source, which is known for high turbidity levels, particularly following the Black Summer bushfires which heavily impacted the catchment.”
All other water supply in the Bega Valley Shire is currently unaffected.
Residents of bushfire-ravaged Bega Valley rely on carted water after flooding
Water is being trucked to several NSW south coast towns and a mobile treatment plant is filtering water at the Brogo dam
Towns in the bushfire-ravaged Bega Valley are relying on water carted in milk tanks after flooding made the catchment’s water supply undrinkable.
Bega Valley shire council has been trucking bore water from Bega for towns such as Bermagui, Cobargo and Quaama and the Australian Defence Force has set up a mobile water treatment plant to filter the water supply at the Brogo dam.
The Brogo catchment was burnt out in disastrous fires in the first week of January.
With no trees, grasses or other vegetation to act as a buffer, sediment, ash and other organic debris washed into Brogo dam last week when more than 150mm of rain fell across the catchment.
Chris Best, the council’s manager for water and sewer services, said residents were now under level four water restrictions to try to avoid a notice to boil water.
“It’s just another thing they’re having to go through,” Best said.
Best said in addition to carting water in – which had cost $300,000 so far – and the ADF mobile treatment plant, the council was pumping water from a creek that it hadn’t used to supply the water system for 20 years.
He said in the immediate aftermath of the flooding, turbidity levels reached 600 NTU. They are still at 25 NTU and for drinking water that figure should be five or less.
The dam is still overflowing and 200 megalitres of water a day are pouring over the spillway into the Brogo River.
“This shire has a pristine landscape,” Best said. “[Until now] we’ve managed not to have water treatment ever, just chlorination.”
The council is now seeking financial assistance from the New South Wales government to build a temporary water treatment plant, which is expected to cost $300,000. The mayor, Kristy McBain, is talking to the state’s water minister, Melinda Pavey.
The NSW government has said it will provide financial assistance to the council up to $350,000 for emergency water carting until 10 March, or until normal supply is restored, whichever is the sooner.
A permanent plant was promised by the state government in 2018 but still has to be built.
Best estimated the catchment would “stay burnt out for 18-24 months, meaning every time it rains it will happen again”.
“How to get through the next two years is something we have to work out,” he said.
2004/14 – Bermagui (New South Wales) – Turbidity
From a total of 62 samples, 2 exceedances occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014. The
highest exceedance of 8.8 NTU was recorded on 1 May 2012 at sample site 709 in
Bermagui. The other exceedance was 5.1 NTU on 16 Feb 2010 at sample site 719 in
Bermagui. Iron exceedances were also recorded in the samples.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2004/14 Bermagui (New South Wales) – Iron
From a total of 52 samples, there were 35 exceedances from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014.
The ADWG value for iron is based on aesthetic considerations is 0.3 mg/L. Iron has a taste
threshold of about 0.3 mg/L, gives the water a rust brown appearance and can cause
staining of laundry and plumbing fittings. This high number of exceedences suggests iron in
the distribution system is a persistent problem.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Bega Valley Shire Council issues boil-water notice from Brogo to Bermagui
11 Jan 22 (aboutregional.com.au)
The combination of heavy rainfall and summer visitors to southeast NSW has led to Bega Valley Shire Council issuing a boil-water notice for users connected to the Brogo-Bermagui water supply.
Boiling water before use for drinking, food preparation, teeth cleaning and ice-making is now considered essential for water users in Quaama, Cobargo, Bermagui, Beauty Point, Fairhaven, Wallaga Lake, Wallaga Lake Heights, Wallaga Lake Koori Village and Akolele.
Water issues are not new to Bega Valley communities, but they have been somewhat mitigated in recent times by the temporary water treatment facility in Brogo.
Bega Valley Shire Council’s water and sewer services manager, Chris Best, said the Brogo facility is struggling to manage the current increase in demand, and his team has been “working around the clock” since heavy rain on Thursday, 6 January, 2022.
“With more visitors in the area during the summer break, it has reached the point where the treatment plant can no longer cope with the higher demand,” he said.
“The temporary plant has reduced the need for boil-water notices since introducing flocculation technology, but even this has its limits which is why we are in the process of constructing a permanent treatment and filtration plant at the same site.”
Mr Best said that when the permanent facility is up and running – expected in late 2022 – the Brogo-Bermagui water supply will no longer require boiling after heavy rain events.
“We have previously avoided boil-water notices by carting water from our southern supply, however given the increase in usage at this time of year, this is currently not possible,” he said.
“Our water team will continue with a regular program of testing water from the Brogo River source, which is known for high turbidity levels, particularly following the Black Summer bushfires which heavily impacted the catchment.”
All other water supply in the Bega Valley Shire is currently unaffected.
2 March 2009 – Beauty Point Wallaga Lake (New South Wales) – E.coli
From a total of 1,140 samples, 2 E.coli detections occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014.
Detection dates: 26 Nov 2007 and 2 Mar 2009 at sample sites 612 and 714 in Wallaga Lake
Koorie Village and Beauty Point respectively. In both instances 1 cfu/100mL was detected.
Re‐sampling was undertaken with no E.coli detected.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
26 November 2007 – Wallaga Lake Koorie Village (New South Wales) – E.coli
From a total of 1,140 samples, 2 E.coli detections occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014.
Detection dates: 26 Nov 2007 and 2 Mar 2009 at sample sites 612 and 714 in Wallaga Lake
Koorie Village and Beauty Point respectively. In both instances 1 cfu/100mL was detected.
Re‐sampling was undertaken with no E.coli detected.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
From a total of 246 samples, 2 exceedances occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014. The
highest copper exceedance was 2.59 mg/L at sample site 312 in Merimbula on 1 Aug 2011. The
ADWG guideline limit for copper is 2 mg/L for health considerations and 1 mg/L for aesthetic
considerations. The taste threshold for copper is in the range of 1‐5 mg/L and at concentrations
above 1 mg/L copper can cause staining on sanitary ware. Evidence of this has been recorded for the system, particularly in Merimbula and Tura Beach.
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should
not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
Clearer water trickles into Merimbula after council changes source to Tantawangalo Weir
7 May 2022: https://aboutregional.com.au/clearer-water-trickles-into-merimbula-after-council-changes-source-to-tantawangalo-weir/
Merimbula residents should have noticed clearer water running through their taps thanks to council switching to supplies from Tantawangalo.
Bega Valley Shire Council ditched water from Yellow Pinch Dam in favour of Tantawangalo Weir after months of heavy rain washed fine clay silt into the area’s main water store.
Water and sewerage services manager Chris Best said it resulted in an immediate improvement in water quality.
“With all the rain we’ve had this year, several catchments were affected by runoff, increasing sedimentation in our dams,” he said.
“So we are now sourcing water from places with a constantly-running supply.
“River sources like Tantawangalo can flush sediment through, resulting in a supply that clears sooner following heavy rain.”
He said while Yellow Pinch water is safe to drink, its brown appearance meant it was not something everyone wanted to use.
“It’s important to note the Tantawangalo supply – like any river – is still prone to sediment following heavy rain, but it will clear itself much sooner than the Yellow Pinch Dam,” Mr Best said.
“A permanent solution rests with adding filtration to our water treatment facilities and this is coming, with a new Yellow Pinch treatment and filtration plant scheduled for delivery in 2027.”
He said filtration had been introduced to Bemboka’s water supply in 2019, filtration and treatment were nearing delivery for the Brogo-Bermagui supply and construction of a new plant was about to start in Bega.
Merimbula (New South Wales) – Copper
From a total of 246 samples, 2 exceedances occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014. The
highest copper exceedance was 2.59 mg/L at sample site 312 in Merimbula on 1 Aug 2011. The
ADWG guideline limit for copper is 2 mg/L for health considerations and 1 mg/L for aesthetic
considerations. The taste threshold for copper is in the range of 1‐5 mg/L and at concentrations
above 1 mg/L copper can cause staining on sanitary ware. Evidence of this has been recorded for the system, particularly in Merimbula and Tura Beach.
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should
not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
From a total of 247 samples, 1 exceedance of turbidity occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014.
The 16.9 NTU exceedance was recorded on 7 Jan 2013 at sample site 211 in Eden. This
exceedance was likely due to iron, recorded at a concentration of 0.72 mg/L in the same sample.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2004/14 Eden (New South Wales) – Iron
From a total of 247 samples, 1 exceedance of turbidity occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014.
The 16.9 NTU exceedance was recorded on 7 Jan 2013 at sample site 211 in Eden. This
exceedance was likely due to iron, recorded at a concentration of 0.72 mg/L in the same sample.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2004 – 2014 Tantawanglo-Kiah (New South Wales) – E.coli
From a total of 2,246 samples, 6 E. coli detections occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014.
Detection dates: 07/01/2004, 12/07/2005, 31/10/2005, 04/01/2006, and 24/01/2011. The
highest E. coli detection of 4 cfu/100 mL occurred on 4 Jan 2006 and 24 Jan 2011, both at sample site 412 in Candelo. No E. coli detections have occurred since 24 Jan 2011.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2004-14 Tantawangalo-Kiah (NSW) – Lead
2004/14 – Tantawangalo-Kiah (NSW) – Lead 0.02mg/L (max)
From a total of 246 samples, 5 exceedances occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014.
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2004-14 Tantawangalo-Kiah (NSW) – Iron
2004/14 – Tantawangalo-Kiah (NSW) – Iron 0.72mg/L (max)
From a total of 246 samples, 5 exceedances occurred from 1 Jan 2004 to 31 Mar 2014. The ADWG value for iron based on aesthetic considerations is 0.3 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Analysis of discoloured tap water samples taken following reports from Bega and Tathra residents and business owners in recent weeks has shown the predominant cause of the discolouration to be iron, council says.
Naturally occurring iron in the groundwater from the Bega Borefield supply source and corrosion of water supply network infrastructure are the known causes of this issue.
Periodically these iron deposits become disturbed and subsequently flow from taps at home, giving the water a rust-brown appearance and sometimes also staining laundry.
However, the council said, iron in drinking water is an aesthetic issue, not a health one.
BVSC Water and Sewerage Services manager Jim Collins said without the existence of a water treatment plant to remove the iron from the water, small solids flow through and deposit in the system, particularly in those areas where water flow is low.
“The water is disinfected, safe to drink and of a high quality in terms of most indicators, however we fully understand that when the water is discoloured it can be unpleasant and annoying for people,” Mr Collins said.
“Impacts on laundry and poor experiences for visitors to holiday accommodation are particularly regrettable and we are continually looking at solutions.
“In the immediate term, we will continue with our water mains flushing program, however the effectiveness of this method is limited by the water pressures and flow available and other cleaning techniques are also needed and used periodically, such as air scouring and ice-pigging.
“We (Council) are also purchasing an in-pipe camera and tapping gear to allow staff to undertake a more detailed inspection of the various pipes and fittings in the area and more effectively prioritise asset renewals.
“The water mains in Tathra, including Andy Poole Drive and Bega Street, will be among the first to be examined in this way.”
Mr Collins said the construction of four water treatment plants remained a primary focus and a reserve balance of $10million has been set aside to help achieve that goal.
“But we won’t be able to deliver these in a timely manner solely through current income sources without excessive borrowings and/or a major increase in residential water and sewer bills.
“As such we have submitted an expression of interest application to the NSW Government Safe and Secure Water Program for the scoping phase of a water treatment plant at South Bega. This will include water treatment options planning and site investigations,” Mr Collins said.
Council keeps a record of all discoloured water complaints so that any particularly troublesome locations can be investigated. People experiencing issues are encouraged to lodge a report on 6499 2222.
THERE are Aussies who don’t know what’s in water they drink and bathe in. All they know is that it’s brown — and has been for years.
BATH time can be a nightmare for many parents but for those living in the Bega Valley, it really is a horror show.
Residents living in the region on NSW’s south coast are often faced with murky water that is as brown as tea.
Mother-of-two Suzanne Noble said her daughter sometimes refused to get in the bath.
“One of our girls wouldn’t even get in the bath, when she saw the water she just started screaming,” she told news.com.au.
Ms Noble grew up in the Bega Valley and regularly returned to visit family in the seaside town of Tathra. She also planned to relocate to the area within the next year.
But having lived in Sydney for five years, Ms Noble couldn’t believe what the locals were putting up with.
“We don’t know what we’re drinking, we just know that it’s brown,” she said.
“I don’t believe we should be drinking this in a first-world country, it shouldn’t be happening.”
Not every household has a problem but for those that deal with the worst of it, the liquid that comes out of the tap looks undrinkable.
“You try to do white washing and it ends up brown because whatever is coming out of the tap is brown,” Ms Noble said.
While the drinking water was a longstanding issue, it had got worse over the past 20 years.
Patience among residents is wearing thin and there are growing calls for the issue be fixed.
Bega Valley Shire Residents and Ratepayers Association vice president, Fraser Buchanan, said it was still not clear what was causing the problem and the local council didn’t seem to have any answers.
“Despite claims the water is drinkable and is OK, council spends a lot of time purging the lines and flushing them out, only for it to last a week and then go back to that state again,” Mr Buchanan told news.com.au.
“There’s no real plan in place as far as I’m aware to fix the problem.”
Mr Buchanan said there were four main sources of water in the area and each one of them had its own issues.
Over the years a number of boiled water alerts have been issued in the northern parts of the shire after heavy storms, in particular for supply from the Brogo-Bermagui system as well as the Bemboka River catchment and Bega-Tathra system.
“They tend to stay that way up to a month or more because of high levels of contamination from things like faecal matter,” he said.
None of the four main sources of water were filtered and Mr Buchanan said there were estimates it could cost about $60 million to install filtration systems.
“That’s big bucks for a small shire which only has a population of about 30,000 people and about 18,000 ratepayers,” he said.
The filtration systems may not even fix the problem, because the issue could actually be the pipes.
In particular, Mr Buchanan said the issue in Bega could be coming from the asbestos-lined cast iron pipes that were installed in the 1960s.
“They were a common pipe in their day but it appears those pipes have been breaking down over the years and are rusting away,” he said.
“They could spend a huge amount of money on a filtration system and then find the water is just as bad at the end of the line because it’s the pipelines.
“Where’s the crap coming from? Council needs to identify the main issue.”
Mr Buchanan said money was being thrown at the $7.8 million redevelopment of the Merimbula Airport and $44 million upgrade of the Eden Port to bring more tourists into the area but the core infrastructure was not in place.
“It’s not good enough when the focus of the area is to grow this place,” he said. “That’s where all the money is going while the core on-the-ground stuff is not being dealt with.
“Unless it is, it’s going to turn people off. This is third-world country stuff.”
Storms and drought combine to extend Cooma water headache
5 April 2019
Cooma water continues to be an assault on the senses as Snowy Monaro Regional Council wrestle with the impacts of ongoing flash flooding.
The bad taste and odour in the town’s drinking water developed early last month on the back of storm activity along the Murrumbidgee River, upstream of the Cooma Water Treatment Plant (WTP). Large volumes of dirt and silt were flushed into Cooma’s water supply weir pool on the river. At that point, the chocolate milk coloured contamination extended for a further 21 km upstream of the Cooma WTP.
“Our staff have been working very hard, some up to 20 hours a day, and are committed to getting on top of this problem,” Mayor John Rooney says.
“The water coming out of the tap does comply with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, however, it does have an unpleasant taste and odour and discoloration.
“We are confident we’ll get on top of it in the next week and be back to business as usual for Cooma’s water supply.”
Cr Rooney says residents are coping well and has thanked the community for its patience.
In explaining the issue, the Mayor says extended dry times leading up to recent downpours have played a role.
“This is erosion from upstream, last week’s rain has compounded the problem, its the product of a long period of drought leaving a very thin coverage of vegetation on the ground and leaving it very vulnerable to washout,” he explains.
“Getting that second rain event has been a blessing for some but has been very unfortunate while we try and resolve this for the good folk of Cooma.”
The Cooma WTP has coped well according to Cr Rooney, “it is the best and most capable water treatment plant in Snowy Monaro.”
“Have a look at the colour of the Murrumbidgee River, I am amazed that the Water Treatment Plant can clarify that and turn it into a state that is safe for drinking.
“This is not a design issue or an engineering issue, it is a problem with the quality of the source water.”
Council staff are currently working with landholders upstream to address the risk of further erosion.
As a resident of Michalago, the Mayor hopes the experience highlights the importance of and work involved in providing reticulated potable water.
“Town people tend to take town water for granted. There are many small villages in Snowy Monaro who don’t have potable water and all of us living on the land are responsible for providing our own water,” he says.
Improving the water quality for the Bombala and Delegate communities is also a work in progress for Council, planning and engineering considerations are underway at the moment, Cr Rooney hopes that works on the $15 million project will be underway within the next 18 months.
Residents of a southern NSW town say they are living off bottled water because the town supply is leaving them with irritated bowels and skin rashes.
Karin Olsen moved to Narrandera from Sydney six months ago and said within three days she was suffering from stomach cramps and diarrhoea.
She said when she mentioned her symptoms to a local retailer in town, their response was disturbing.
“They said, ‘For God’s sake don’t drink the tap water’,” Ms Olsen said.
She said that since switching to bottled water, at a cost of $100 per fortnight, her symptoms had gone but the tap water still regularly smelt and looked “putrid”.
Ms Olsen found it incredible that in 21st-century Australia there was still water that was undrinkable.
Longstanding issue
The issue of water cleanliness has plagued Narrandera for years.
In 2022 one local mum told the ABC the dirty water cost her thousands in damage to clothes put through the laundry, and 12 months later another mum, Ariel Tonkies, said she was experiencing physical reactions to the water.
Ms Tonkies has lived in the town for three years with her partner David and sons Alex, aged two, and George, eight months.
She said her water was discoloured and smelt “metallic or like sulphur or chlorine” at least once a week.
She is sensitive to heavy metals and experiences a severe allergic reaction to the water, but said her sons did not have the same sensitivities and reacted with rashes.
“It’s really affecting our quality of life at the moment,” she said.
“It’s making us want to flee the town.”
When the water is bad she has to forgo showering or bathing herself because of her allergic reaction.
“Ten days was longest time. It makes me feel very gross,” she said.
Lack of filtration
Narrandera’s water supply comes from four ground bores placed along the edge of the Murrumbidgee River, which have been there for at least 20 years.
Narrandera Shire Council general manager George Cowan said the town’s water quality was a “number one priority”.
He said the issue stemmed from a decision in the 1980s to use groundwater for the town’s drinking supply without installing a filtration system.
“That decision by the council in the 1980s essentially condemned this community to this outcome,” he said.
Mr Cowan said the water now went through some primary treatments including chlorine injection and, while it was considered safe to drink, it “retains a heavy chemical load and strong taste associated with bore water”.
He said the water was regularly tested and was considered drinkable, and while he had not received many complaints about physical reactions, he urged anyone with symptoms to contact the council.
Solution years away
Mr Cowan said the council had been working with the state government to plan a new treatment plant for the past six years, but estimated it was still another three years away.
“I would like to do this a lot quicker but unfortunately we haven’t been able to do that given the mechanics of the process that we have to follow,” he said.
In the interim, free domestic filtration devices have been made available to residents.
Ms Olsen said the timeframe was unacceptable and it showed a double standard for residents in the bush.
“In Bondi, Woolhara or Potts Point it would be fixed within 48 hours maximum,” she said.
“This situation, waiting another three years, would not fly in Sydney. No way in hell.”
A spokesperson for the Department of Planning and Environment said Narrandera’s water met Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
They did not respond to questions about the timeline, but said they had provided $215,000 to the council for water planning, some of which is being used for a feasibility study into solution to the water quality.
They said the study needed to be complete before they could discuss “next steps”.
Drinking water turns ‘evil’ in string of Aussie town
Dr Wright warns it is not just drinking unboiled water that can prove harmful. Even contact with skin can have devastating results. “Health authorities always warn us to limit physical contact with floodwater, particularly if you’re elderly, or have cuts and scratches,” he said.
When analysing water, his team looks for faecal coliform indicators. Their presence indicates there is warm-blooded animal waste in the supply. “I’ve tested a lot of water after floods and it’s just evil. We grab samples and test them in the lab the bacteria results just light up.”
Bacteria, viruses and parasites like giardia and cryptosporidium can enter the water supply after flooding. If people drink affected water without boiling it, Dr Wright warns you’re “spinning the chamber in the revolver”. “It’s absolutely Russian roulette.”
“The advice is boil the water, but you don’t just boil it like you’re making a cup of tea, you boil it and leave it on what they call a rolling boil,” he said. “So you hold the button down… for 30 seconds or so then let it cool down.”
Dr Wright warns it is not just drinking unboiled water that can prove harmful. Even contact with skin can have devastating results. “Health authorities always warn us to limit physical contact with floodwater, particularly if you’re elderly, or have cuts and scratches,” he said.
When analysing water, his team looks for faecal coliform indicators. Their presence indicates there is warm-blooded animal waste in the supply. “I’ve tested a lot of water after floods and it’s just evil. We grab samples and test them in the lab the bacteria results just light up.”
Bacteria, viruses and parasites like giardia and cryptosporidium can enter the water supply after flooding. If people drink affected water without boiling it, Dr Wright warns you’re “spinning the chamber in the revolver”. “It’s absolutely Russian roulette.”
“The advice is boil the water, but you don’t just boil it like you’re making a cup of tea, you boil it and leave it on what they call a rolling boil,” he said. “So you hold the button down… for 30 seconds or so then let it cool down.
In many small towns in Australia, councils are responsible for managing the upkeep of water and sewerage systems and combatting the impact of flooding can sometimes be beyond their ability.
“If you don’t travel much and you’re from a big city in Australia, drinking water straight from a tap is probably something you take for granted,” Dr Wright said. “But as soon as you go into a regional location, overseas, or to a developing country, we suddenly become aware of water problems.”
Narrandera family’s decade-long battle for better water, but council says it’s ‘safe’
Jan 14 2022: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-14/narrandera-family-decade-long-call-for-better-water-quality/100731174
Nicole Beard filled her kettle with water from the kitchen tap … but not to make a cup of tea. She was preparing to bathe her babies.
After the water heated up, she waited for it to cool down then poured it into the baby bath.
That was the only way she felt comfortable bathing her children in the water that came out of the taps in her home at Narrandera in the New South Wales Riverina.
“It’s really disgusting because you don’t want to put your kids into something like that,” she said.
“I didn’t want to put them in that rusty water because I don’t know if it’s just a cosmetic-looking terrible thing or if there are things in there that aren’t good for you.”
About seven years later, the mother of four says not much has changed.
“When it’s really bad, it comes out like an orange rust and that happens every now and again,” Ms Beard said.
2002 – 2010 Narrandera (New South Wales) – E.coli
2002: Maximum level 95 (cfu 100/mL)
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Narrandera (NSW) Lead
2001/13 – Narrandera (NSW) – Lead 0.054mg/L (max)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Narrandera (New South Wales) – Aluminium
2001/13: Narrandera (New South Wales) Aluminium 0.85mg/L (max), 0.01mg/L (mean)
Australian Guideline: Aluminium 0.2mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2001/13 – Narrandera (New South Wales) – Turbidity
2001/13: Narrandera (New South Wales) – Turbidity 98.7NTU (max), 1.19NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2001/13 Narrandera (New South Wales) – Iron
2001/13: Narrandera (New South Wales) – Iron 2.1mg/L (max), 0.14 (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Narrandera (New South Wales) – Copper
2001/13: Narrandera (New South Wales) Copper 2.73mg/L (max), 0.029mg/L (mean)
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should
not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
Mr Murphy confirmed that a “boil water alert” was issued on Monday 2 April for the Pine Hill area only. Notification was issued personally and immediately to occupants of thirty-five residences in the Pine Hill Area, who may have been affected by elevated readings of E-Coli bacteria. “Water quality tests confirmed that readings had achieved compliance with national drinking water guidelines by Thursday 5 April. Testing continued to ensure compliance and precautions were lifted on Friday 13 April with Council staff delivered notice to affected residents on that day. No other part of the town’s water supply was affected.”
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Murrumbidgee Council Risk-Based Drinking Water Management System September 2016
Occasional exceedances were recorded for E. coli, and rare exceedances for true colour iron.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Iron
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Murrumbidgee Council Risk-Based Drinking Water Management System September 2016
Occasional exceedances were also recorded for E. coli and iron.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Iron
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
1/10/17 – 31/12/17: Hillston (New South Wales) Turbidity 274NTU (max), 49.9218NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
1/10/17 – 31/12/17: Carrathool (New South Wales) Turbidity 272NTU (max), 136.55NTU (mean)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Routine sampling resulted in a positive E.coli detection of 1 org/100ml at the Shepherds Lane tank.
Actions
As per procedure, the tank was spot dosed and resampling was conducted for three consecutive days at the tank and at one reticulation site downstream. The cause of the
detection was considered to be potential ingress into the tank, along with low chlorine residuals.
The operating regime of the system had changed dramatically since the introduction of local water sources. Water age has been an ongoing issue at this site and actions
have been identified for implementation in this system in the future.
These corrective actions include the installation of a small pump to create extra demand on the Shepherds Lane tank, thus exercising the chloramination dosing system at Loemans Road and increasing chlorine residuals in the tank.
On the second day of the resampling, an E.coli was detected at the reticulation site downstream of the tank and an incident was declared (see following entry for further details).
Riddell Road Tank Incident, 20 Feb 2014 (Sunbury locality)
Issue
Routine sampling at the Riddell Road tank resulted in an E.coli detection of 2 orgs/100ml.
Actions
An incident was declared at a minor level 1 level due to the possible impact. The tank was spot dosed and an integrity inspection carried out with no obvious issues found.
A network trace was conducted to identify the impacted supply area and Western Water’s communications team were engaged to organise the logistics around a potential boil water alert should the follow up sampling return positive results.
Resampling was conducted at the tank and two reticulation sites downstream in an effort to increase the data set, with three sets of samples collected at each site for three
consecutive day. All resampling was clear.
A key learning from this incident is comprehending the logistics involved in delivering a boil water notice when the impacted number of properties is large (in this instance 1,825).
Mundy Road sentinel site, 13 Feb 2014 (Sunbury locality)
Issue
Sentinel sites are routinely sampled weekly to ascertain any early indications of water quality changes. A routine sample at the Mundy Road sentinel site resulted in a positive
detection for E.coli (1org/100ml).
Actions
he system was immediately flushed extensively to pull fresh water through to the extremity. Resampling was then conducted for three consecutive days with each sampling effort requiring the collection of a set of three samples, five minutes apart. The first resample returned a further positive result for faecal streptococci (2orgs/100ml) indicating that system ingress had occurred. All follow up results were clear.
These detections were immediately preceded by a major bushfire in the Sunbury/Riddells Creek water quality localities. The CFA were drawing on the drinking water system in the immediate vicinity of the sample point with two trucks reporting that they were experiencing low water
pressure at the time. This indicates a high likelihood that backflow may have occurred from either one or both trucks.
The key learnings from this issue were that the reticulation system is vulnerable when under significant pressure due to bushfire.
Stamford Hill Tank, Bacchus Marsh 9 Jan 2014 (Lerderderg locality)
Issue
Routine sampling at the Stamford Hill tank resulted in a faecal streptococci detection of 1 org/100ml in the presence of 0.01mg/L free chlorine and 0.06mg/L total chlorine.
Actions
As per procedure, this tank was spot dosed and resampling conducted at the tank and two reticulation sites downstream of the tank. All results were clear of any
microbiological detection.
This tank receives freshly chlorinated water from a nearby booster chlorination station. It was thought that there may be some short circuiting occurring in the tank. This was investigated through an extensive system analysis of historical chlorine residuals in the reticulation system
supplied by this tank.
Stamford Hill and Gisborne Road Tanks, 7 Feb 2014 (Lerderderg locality)
Issue
Routine sampling resulted in two detections of faecal streptococci at two separate tanks, on Stamford Hill and Gisborne Road. The results were 2 orgs/100ml and 4
orgs/100ml respectively.
Actions
Both tanks were spot dosed and resampling was then conducted over three consecutive days with all follow up results remaining clear.
At the time of the detections it was noted that the chlorine residuals were dropping away rapidly from the treatment plant. Investigation into the water quality showed an
increase in dissolved organics as well as soluble manganese.
The water being treated at the time was a blend of Merrimu water and Djerriwarrh Reservoir water. The Djerriwarrh Reservoir water was found to be the source of the organics and manganese. Blending was discontinued and 100% Merrimu water was supplied with chlorine
residuals stabilising shortly afterwards.
4/2/16: Stamford Hill Tank Bacchus Marsh
Stamford Hill Tank, 4 February 2016 (Bacchus Marsh) Issue – Routine sampling at the tank resulted in a detection of 1org/100ml of F.strep in the presence of 0.17mg/L total chlorine. Actions – The tank was isolated from supply and spotdosed with chlorine to return a residual of 0.82mg/L total chlorine. The freshly chlorinated water was pumped into the reticulation system via pump station. Resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear of F.strep. The reported routine result was declared as a false positive. The tank was inspected and some ingress at the inspection hatch was suspected as the root cause, however resampling demonstrated no contaminated water was supplied to customers. Outcome – During early 2016, the tank was assessed by external consultants for refurbishment and a booster chlorinator was installed in 2016.
Dickson’s Overpass Incident, 28 Dec 2013 (Darley locality)
Issue
Routine sampling at the Dicksons Road Overpass resulted in an E.coli detection of 3 orgs/100ml in the presence of 0.01mg/L free chlorine and 0.07ml/L total chlorine.
Incidents reported under section 22 Safe Drinking Water Act 2003
Gisborne Road Tank, 2 Dec 2013 (Lerderderg locality)
Routine sampling at the tank resulted in detection of 1 org/100ml of faecal streptococci in the presence of 0.01mg/L free chlorine and 0.06mg/L of total chlorine.
Actions
The tank was isolated from supply and spot dosed. While the tank was isolated, freshly chlorinated water was pumped into the reticulation system via a local chlorine
booster station.
Flushing was also conducted at the extremities of the system in order to ensure increases in chlorine residuals were met.
Operational site visits to the tank were increased along with spot dosing and works to increase water turnover in the tank.
Resampling was conducted for three consecutive days with all results clear for the tank.
However, one reticulation site downstream of the tank returned positive results for faecal
streptoccoci despite increases in chlorine across the system.
The reticulation site in question was inspected. The sample tap was an old garden-style tap fitting which brought into question the integrity of the sample collected. A new clickin
fitting was installed and the reticulation site resampled for three further days with all results remaining clear.
E.coli detection in Gisborne Road Tank and network, 30 December 2016 (Bacchus Marsh)
Issue – During storm activity on 29 December 2016, the Gisborne Road Tank in Bacchus Marsh had a small volume of rainwater intrusion. This resulted in a low-level E.coli detection (1 org/100ml) in the routine sample taken on 30 December.
Resampling was undertaken that day to verify the result. While the tank reported no E.coli presence in this sample, testing confirmed the presence of low-level E.coli (1 org/100ml) in the downstream network.
The Gisborne Road Tank supplies to an isolated part of the network near Bacchus Marsh, 55 properties in total. DHHS was notified on the day of detection in accordance with the requirements of Section 18.
Actions – After resampling on the day of detection, the tank and network were spot dosed with chlorine to disinfect the water supply.
Sampling on the following three days confirmed that the tank and network had no contamination present and some minor repairs were made to the tank roof and hatch as a result of storm damage.
Outcome – The tank was reviewed as part of the Drinking Water Tank Integrity Program with appropriate work scheduled for 2017/18, based on priority. In early 2017, improvements to chlorine online monitoring were made at the tank to ensure adequate chlorine levels. The tank is audited yearly as part of the HACCP system.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2016/17: Herberton (Queensland) – Colour 17 Pt Co Units (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2016/17: Cassowary (Queensland) Iron 0.592mg/L (max), 0.4965mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Cassowary (Queensland) – Colour
2016/17: Cassowary (Queensland) – Colour 22 HU (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Peterborough (Victoria) Iron
2017/18: Peterborough (Victoria) Iron 4.25mg/L (max), 0.392mg/L (min)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Surat (Queensland) – BOIL WATER ALERT December 18 2023/Lifted January 25 2024
18/12/23: Maranoa Regional Council advises all residents in Surat to boil their tap water used for drinking, following the high level of turbidity (dis-colouration) affecting the Surat water supply.
This alert applies today (18 December 2023) to Surat residents, and Council is working closely with Queensland Health to resolve the situation. Council is well underway flushing and testing the mains network, however test results may take several days before this alert can be lifted.
Surat (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
4/6/18 Surat (Qld) Reticulation Trihalomethanes – 310 µg/L
26/6/18 Surat (Qld) Reticulation Trihalomethanes – 310 µg/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
2017/18 Springwood (Queensland) Iron 1.14mg/L (max), 0.043mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2017/18 Greenbank (Queensland) Iron 0.81mg/L (max), 0.028mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Greenbank Water Supply Zone (Queensland) Turbidity
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2016 October – Peacock Avenue, Beenleigh (Queensland) – Lead
25/10/16: Peacock Avenue, Beenleigh (Queensland) – Lead 0.019mg/L (max).
High lead reading (ADWG guideline is ≤0.01 mg/L for taste threshold) was measured on one occasion in the Town Bores
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
26/2/18: Old Bluff Road reservoir, Woodhill – 5 MPN/100mL
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
4/12/17: Kimberley Park elevated reservoir, Kimberley Park (Qld) – 1 MPN/100mL
4/2/19: Kimberley Park elevated reservoir, Kimberley Park (Qld) – 14 MPN/100mL
28/2/22: Kimberley Park WSZ. The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine
sample taken from the Kimberley Park Elevated Reservoir sample point (DSP033). 1MPN E.coli
organisms per 100mL was detected. Follow-up samples exhibited no continued presence
of E. coli and supply met ADWG (health) guidelines.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
2013/14: Muttaburra (Queensland) Iron 0.93mg/L (max), 0.43mg/L (av)
2017/18: Muttaburra (Queensland) Iron 0.75mg/L (max), 0.36mg/L (av)
2018/19: Muttaburra (Queensland) Iron 0.86mg/L (max), 0.38mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“At times colour is above the ADWG guideline criteria….Generally the colour of treated water at GISC is below the ADWG value, however, large spikes were observed in January 2013 due to an increase in the concentration of manganese in the source water.”
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Muttaburra – Queensland – Total Dissolved Solids
2018/19 Muttaburra (Queensland) Total Dissolved Solids 2736mg/L (max), 389.91mg/L (av)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Nitrate: ADWG Guideline 50mg/L. Nitrate is the product of oxygenated nitrogen created from the breakdown of organic matter; lightning strikes; inorganic pesticides; or explosives. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines recommend that nitrate levels between 50-100mg/L are a health consideration for infants less than three months, although levels up to 100mg/L can be safely consumed by adults. Mainly a problem in Northern Territory and some communities in Western Australia.
Incident Description: The first non-compliance was a detection of chlorate from a routine sample taken from the Jericho Water Treatment Plant and the Alpha Water Treatment Plant. As Chlorate is a parameter with no reporting limit, any detection is reported immediately to the Department and results are monitored monthly. Corrective and Preventative Actions: Council are conducting further investigations into how to minimise chlorate occurrences, by looking to delivery methods and storage of chemicals.
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Nitrate: ADWG Guideline 50mg/L. Nitrate is the product of oxygenated nitrogen created from the breakdown of organic matter; lightning strikes; inorganic pesticides; or explosives. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines recommend that nitrate levels between 50-100mg/L are a health consideration for infants less than three months, although levels up to 100mg/L can be safely consumed by adults. Mainly a problem in Northern Territory and some communities in Western Australia.
Incident Description: The first non-compliance was a detection of chlorate from a routine sample taken from the Jericho Water Treatment Plant and the Alpha Water Treatment Plant. As Chlorate is a parameter with no reporting limit, any detection is reported immediately to the Department and results are monitored monthly. Corrective and Preventative Actions: Council are conducting further investigations into how to minimise chlorate occurrences, by looking to delivery methods and storage of chemicals.
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Alpha – Queensland – Total Dissolved Solids
2018/19: Alpha Total Dissolved Solids 1040mg/L (max), 1004mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
HEALTH officials have confirmed that low levels of the dangerous pathogens Giardia and Cryptosporidium have been detected in the upper canals of Sydney’s water supply feeding Prospect Reservoir.
It is the first such incident since the 1998 health scare which forced Sydneysiders to boil water for weeks.
The Daily Telegraph Online has confirmed that health officials found low levels of the bugs have been found.
The canal runs from the southern dams in the Illawarra into Sydney’s Prospect Reservoir. The bugs are believed to have been washed into the upper canal from the heavy rainfalls over recent weeks.
It is expected that Sydney Water will immediately cut the supply from these canals to ensure the bugs do not enter Sydney’s main drinking water supply.
Today Deputy Chief Health Officer Kerry Chant said no bugs had been detected in filtered water coming from the water filtration plants and there was no threat to public health.
The upper canal supplies about 20 per cent of water to Prospect Filtration Plant – which feeds treated water to Sydney homes. Warragamba Dam supplies around 80 per cent.
Water Minister Phil Koperberg said the filtration system was adequately dealing with the very low levels of the bugs.
He said his advice to residents was that the water was perfectly safe and met all health guidelines.
Yesterday, the State Government alerted Sydneysiders that Warragamba dam had been contaminated with two massive plumes of dirty water in what authorities say are similar circumstances to events that led to the 1998 Giardia contamination.
However, they insisted that no bugs had been found in this water – the main supply. Water will still be drawn from here.
In July 1998, routine water testing identified Cryptosporidium cysts and Giardia cysts at high levels, leading authorities to issue a warning for residents to boil water.
The Health Department at the time claimed that it had not led to any higher reporting of illness in relation to the contamination despite anecdotal evidence that hundreds of people had fallen ill as a result.
Sources have insisted, however, that the bugs this time have been found in “very low levels”
Government sources revealed yesterday that a dirty plume of water discovered in Warragamba Dam plume had moved 15 metres overnight, “which shocked them” and had now reached the dam wall, leading to a public alert being issued. They were still monitoring for the presence of the bugs in this water.
Prospect Reservoir holds around 3 week supply of water should water supplies be cut off from Warragamba Dam.
The first plume entered the dam on June 20, the second five days later.
The NSW Health Department advised yesterday that the plumes contained no pathogens – such as giardia or cryptosporidium which can cause sever gastro-intestinal illness – and did not pose any health risk or supply risk to Sydney’s drinking water.
However, testing overnight had revealed some traces of the bugs in the upper canal supplies from the Illawarra Dams which also feed Sydney’s water supply.
“It’s not the sort of stuff you would want coming out your tap,” said Water Minister Phil Koperberg said yesterday.
“(But) its important to stress as strongly as possible that there is no threat whatsoever to Sydney’s water supplies.”
The Sydney Catchment Authority has already been forced to change where it takes water from at Warragamba to avoid the dirty water entering the system and being delivered to Prospect Reservoir where Sydney’s drinking water supply is filtered and delivered to homes via the water mains.
The privately run filtration plant has been put on alert to upgrade it treatment in case any dirty water reaches the plant.
Ironically, the contamination has been caused by the 200mm of rain that has fallen over the catchment in the past two weeks.
It contains nutrients and debris washed into the dam by the floodwaters.
The 1998 water crisis led to significant changes to early warning systems and better filtration, to prevent a repeat.
Opposition leader Barry O’Farrell said the incident highlighted a lack of planning by authorities.
However, the NSW Health Department’s chief medical officer Kerry Chant said the monitoring system had never been better.
Ms Chant said authorities now had the capacity to source water from a number of different supplies which allowed it to isolate any contaminated water from ever entering the main system.
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
On Sunday, the following day, extremely high results were obtained from Macquarie Street (376C/3952G per 100L), College Street (170C/332G) and the Art Gallery (200C/963G) and lower levels from Crown Street Reservoir (6C/20G). Test results for the Prospect Plant, Potts Hill, Thornleigh and West Ryde were negative; however, the first positive result outside the eastern CBD (except for those at Prospect and Potts Hill) was recorded in Greenacre (0C/8G). Sydney Water immediately began a systematic scouring and flushing of the area affected by the Crown Street reservoir. Meanwhile, Sydney Water’s incident management team continued investigating possible sources of contamination without success. On the basis of visual inspections and other tests, it did not appear that the integrity of the system had been breached.
The 1998 Sydney Water Crisis (A) The Australia and New Zealand School of Government Case Program 2005-22.1
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
On Sunday, the following day, extremely high results were obtained from Macquarie Street (376C/3952G per 100L), College Street (170C/332G) and the Art Gallery (200C/963G) and lower levels from Crown Street Reservoir (6C/20G). Test results for the Prospect Plant, Potts Hill, Thornleigh and West Ryde were negative; however, the first positive result outside the eastern CBD (except for those at Prospect and Potts Hill) was recorded in Greenacre (0C/8G). Sydney Water immediately began a systematic scouring and flushing of the area affected by the Crown Street reservoir. Meanwhile, Sydney Water’s incident management team continued investigating possible sources of contamination without success. On the basis of visual inspections and other tests, it did not appear that the integrity of the system had been breached.
The 1998 Sydney Water Crisis (A) The Australia and New Zealand School of Government Case Program 2005-22.1
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
On Sunday, the following day, extremely high results were obtained from Macquarie Street (376C/3952G per 100L), College Street (170C/332G) and the Art Gallery (200C/963G) and lower levels from Crown Street Reservoir (6C/20G). Test results for the Prospect Plant, Potts Hill, Thornleigh and West Ryde were negative; however, the first positive result outside the eastern CBD (except for those at Prospect and Potts Hill) was recorded in Greenacre (0C/8G). Sydney Water immediately began a systematic scouring and flushing of the area affected by the Crown Street reservoir. Meanwhile, Sydney Water’s incident management team continued investigating possible sources of contamination without success. On the basis of visual inspections and other tests, it did not appear that the integrity of the system had been breached.
The 1998 Sydney Water Crisis (A) The Australia and New Zealand School of Government Case Program 2005-22.1
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
On Saturday 25 July, Sydney Water received more positive test results but this time they were considerably elevated. Three central Sydney sites recorded in excess of 100 Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts per 100 litres of water. Sydney Water expanded its testing program to include a wider part of the distribution system. Prospect was also re-tested for the first time since 21 July. One of the high readings was obtained from the Crown Street reservoir but, even after a physical check, nothing unusual was discovered.
At 7.50 pm that evening, Sydney Water informed NSW Health of the new developments, pointing out that one of the highest-reading samples from College Street had proved difficult to process. Sydney Water postulated that cysts and oocysts could have collected over years in the biofilm lining of the pipes. These cysts/oocysts may have been dislodged by the flushing of the pipes, thereby releasing them into the system. Sydney Water also explained that first-flush water may not be entirely representative of the whole distribution system, as it may be from a dead-end section of the pipe or a hydrant where contaminated compounds can build up.15 Sydney Water and NSW Health agreed to search for possible local causes of contamination, but none were identified. Both parties also agreed to have the test results independently verified by Macquarie University.
On Sunday, the following day, extremely high results were obtained from Macquarie Street (376C/3952G per 100L), College Street (170C/332G) and the Art Gallery (200C/963G) and lower levels from Crown Street Reservoir (6C/20G). Test results for the Prospect Plant, Potts Hill, Thornleigh and West Ryde were negative; however, the first positive result outside the eastern CBD (except for those at Prospect and Potts Hill) was recorded in Greenacre (0C/8G). Sydney Water immediately began a systematic scouring and flushing of the area affected by the Crown Street reservoir. Meanwhile, Sydney Water’s incident management team continued investigating possible sources of contamination without success. On the basis of visual inspections and other tests, it did not appear that the integrity of the system had been breached.
The 1998 Sydney Water Crisis (A) The Australia and New Zealand School of Government Case Program 2005-22.1
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
The following day, Sydney Water received a clear batch of test results from all areas except Sydney Hospital which showed a low positive reading for Giardia. Sydney Water ordered further testing of the hospital and areas in the vicinity as well as flushing of the local system. That afternoon, Sydney Water advised NSW Health of the results and their actions, which NSW Health endorsed.
On 23 July, hospital samples showed a higher positive result for both parasites, but surrounding areas were clear. This led Sydney Water to conclude that the incident was probably a localised event resulting from a cross-contamination within the hospital grounds. Sydney Water convened a meeting between its representatives and hospital engineers, at which they decided to empty the hospital storage tank. Sydney Water also informed NSW Health of the situation and took more samples downstream from
Potts Hill.
The next day, all samples were clear except two low-positive readings obtained from Sydney Hospital and the Art Gallery.
The 1998 Sydney Water Crisis (A) The Australia and New Zealand School of Government Case Program 2005-22.1
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
On 15 July 1998, routine water sampling was conducted by Sydney Water. On 21 July, test results showed positive low-level readings of both Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water taken from outlets at the Prospect distribution chamber and Potts Hill reservoir. As per the MoU, Sydney Water contacted the Environmental Health Branch at NSW Health later that morning, informing them of the results.
The 1998 Sydney Water Crisis (A) The Australia and New Zealand School of Government Case Program 2005-22.1
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
WHEN water first rushes out of the taps at Brett Reid’s home, it’s a murky brown colour.
If it’s warmed up – like when the Pratten resident does the washing up or takes a shower – it takes on a musky, unpleasant smell.
It’s the same bore water that has forced Mr Reid to replace his shower heads every six months and buy a new washing machine each year.
Mr Reid has been lobbying council for the past couple of years to get a better quality water supply for the small community.
While he concedes it’s never going to be the same as town water, he said a better filter system needed to be installed to stop a lot of the dirt and grit from getting through.
“It’s absolutely shocking,” he said.
“We’re in a flood plain and after the floods it was black but it’s gotten a lot better since then.
“The sulphur and copper just eats away at the taps and shower heads and my neighbour lost his hot water system.”
Another set of Mr Reid’s neighbours have settled on boiling their water before giving it to their young children, such is their concern with the quality of water.
Mr Reid said he had resorted to hiring washing machines, after the water clogged the pipes and burnt the electrical wiring in three previous ones he owned.
His complaints have been scoffed at by a fellow local, who said all of the residents were “jolly lucky to have water”.
“Surely they’ve got tanks on the houses and tank water to drink and to cook with,” the resident said.
“It always amazes me how quick people are to complain about things.”
Councillor Vic Pennisi said Southern Downs council had certainly “been made aware” of the residents’ water concerns.
“I personally collected a sample of water to give to the director (of Engineering Services Peter See) and asked for feedback,” he said.
“It’s now in the hands of the director, and he’ll tell us the findings.”
Southern Downs Regional Council water and sewerage manager Gary Palmer said council regularly ran flushing and maintenance programs on the bore.
“We regularly test water in Pratten to ensure the water supply meets Australian drinking water standards,” he said.
“However, residents are always going to have a higher mineral content in bore water than above-ground water.”
Water is pumped from the bore into a small treatment plant and into 10 reticulated lines to residents.
Mr Palmer said the filter was back-washed every two days.
Any discolouration in the water supply, he added, would be a result of sediment in the lines.
“Council has recently conducted inspection and testing of water throughout the system, and has flushed out a number of the lines, with the water becoming clear after flushing,” he said.
“In Pratten, some of the lines, particularly those at the end of the lines, cannot easily be flushed.
“Under planned maintenance, council will next week install new flushing points on these narrower lines, so that all lines in Pratten can be flushed on a regular basis.”
A council spokeswoman said the installation of a pipe line from Warwick to Pratten would be a “significant cost” and would have to be passed on to water consumers in Pratten.
Pratten water
Tested annually for copper and other minerals.
August 2011 tests showed copper levels at 0.15mg/L.
12/2/19: South Canberra, Woden, Weston Creek (Zone 3).
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 18ug/L
Di(2‑ethylhexyl) phthalate: Based on health considerations, concentrations in drinking water should not exceed 0.01 mg/L.
Di(2‑ethylhexyl) adipate: The data are inadequate to determine a guideline value.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
DEHP and DEHA are commonly used plasticisers in flexible polyvinyl chloride products. They may be present in drinking water that has been in contact with these products for long periods of time, or as the result of industrial spills. Overseas studies have detected DEHP in drinking water on a few occasions at concentrations from 0.00005 mg/L (50 ng/L) to 0.01 mg/L. DEHA has been detected at concentrations between 0.000001 mg/L (1 ng/L) to 0.0001 mg/L (100 ng/L) in treated drinking water.
DEHP is the most widely used plasticiser. It is also used as a replacement for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in electrical capacitors. DEHA is used as a lubricant and in hydraulic fluids. Exposure to DEHP and DEHA is widespread because of the broad range of products using these plasticisers. Food is the major source of exposure, and it has been estimated that adult daily intake of DEHP and DEHA, as a result of consumption of food in contact with plastic products, is 0.2 mg to 16 mg.
People receiving kidney dialysis treatment may be exposed to much higher amounts of these plasticisers. In the United States it has been estimated that each dialysis patient could be receiving up to 90 mg of DEHP per treatment.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
No data are available on DEHP or DEHA concentrations
South Canberra, Woden, Weston Creek
2013/14: Asbestos. Present
Asbestos is a general term for certain fibrous silicate minerals. It can be present in drinking water from the dissolution of asbestos-containing minerals, industrial effluent, atmospheric deposition, and deterioration of asbestos cement pipes commonly used in water distribution systems.
The chemical and crystalline structure of asbestos results in products with a high tensile strength, durability, flexibility, and heat and chemical resistance. Asbestos has been used in construction materials such as asbestos cement pipes and sheets, electrical and thermal insulation, brake linings and clutch pads.
The extent of asbestos contamination of food has not been well studied because of the lack of a simple and reliable analytical method. Limited data indicate that the amount in food may be 10 times higher than that found in drinking water.
Studies in the United States and Canada have reported typical asbestos fibre numbers in drinking water of less than 1 MFL (million fibres per litre). Severe deterioration of asbestos cement pipes has been known to produce fibre numbers of up to 2000 MFL.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
Australian drinking water supplies have not been routinely monitored for asbestos; however, fibre numbers are probably similar to those reported overseas
2020/21 – South Canberra, Woden, Weston Creek (Australian Capital Territory) Chloroacetic Acids
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
Cryptosporidium at a concentration of 0.007 oocysts/L was detected in the final water leaving Stromlo WTP. At the time all other water quality parameters were found to be within specification and no cryptosporidium was detected in the source or raw water supply.
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
2017/18: Apollo Bay (Victoria) Turbidity 6.6NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Wellstead – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Roebourne (Western Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Munglinup (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Donnybrook (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2017/18 Broome (Western Australia) Silica 95mg/L (max), 92.5mg/L (mean) (listed as Silcon in Water Corporation Water Quality Report 2017-18)
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
Broome (Western Australia) – pH (acidic)
2011/12 Broome (Western Australia) pH 6.48 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Rocky Gully (Western Australia) Iron
2011/12 Rocky Gully (Western Australia) Iron 1mg/L (max), 0.404mg/L (av)
2013/14 Rocky Gully (Western Australia) Iron 0.6mg/L (max), 0.24mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Rocky Gully – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2013/14 Popanyinning (Western Australia) Iron 0.44mg/L (max), 0.27mg/L (mean)
2017/18 Popanyinning (Western Australia) Iron 0.3mg/L (max), 0.19mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Popanyinning (Western Australia) Iron 0.6mg/L (max), 0.34mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2013/14 Narrogin (Western Australia) Iron 0.34mg/L (max), 0.23mg/L (av)
2017/18 Narrogin (Western Australia) Iron 0.3mg/L (max), 0.26mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2010/11 Mt Eliza (Western Australia) Iron 0.32mg/L (max), 0.128mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Mt Eliza – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
2011/12 Mt Eliza (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 602mg/L (max), 486mg/L (av)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2010/11 Moora (Western Australia) Iron 0.34mg/L (max), 0.142mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Moora – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
2022/23: Moora (Western Australia Total Dissolved Solids 617mg/L (max), 559mg/L (mean)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Katanning (Western Australia) Iron
2011/12 Katanning (Western Australia) Iron 0.58mg/L (max), 0.273mg/L (av)
2013/14 Katanning (Western Australia) Iron 0.6mg/L (max), 0.38mg/L (av)
2015/16 Katanning (Western Australia) Iron 0.52mg/L (max), 0.33mg/L (mean)
2017/18 Katanning (Western Australia) Iron 0.36mg/L (max), 0.218mg/L (mean)
2018/19: Katanning (Western Australia) Iron 0.42mg/L (max), 0.26mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2010/11 Highbury (Western Australia) Iron 0.4mg/L (max), 0.173mg/L (av)
2011/12 Highbury (Western Australia) Iron 0.36mg/L (max), 0.187mg/L (av)
2017/18 Highbury (Western Australia) Iron 0.36mg/L (max), 0.188mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2013/14 Greenmount (Western Australia) Iron 0.54mg/L (max), 0.171mg/L (av)
2022/23 Greenmount (Western Australia) Iron 0.34mg/L (max), 0.077mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2010/11 Gin Gin (Western Australia) Iron 0.36mg/L (max), 0.144mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2013/14 Cuballing (Western Australia) Iron 0.32mg/L (max), 0.257mg/L (av)
2015/16 Cuballing (Western Australia) Iron 0.42mg/L (max), 0.3mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2013/14: Buckland Hill (Western Australia) Iron 0.4mg/L (max), 0.158mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
2018/20: Macknade (Qld) – Hinchinbrook Shire Council – PFAS Breaches
Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2021
(* Note Bore 3 had a PFAS detection >14 times the ADWG guideline for PFHxS+PFOS in September 2018. The guideline was also breached in July 2018. Bore 4 breached the Guideline level in November and December 2020)
The Queensland Government is assisting the Hinchinbrook Shire Council in response to the detection of perfluorinated substances in one groundwater bore that previously supplied part of the Hinchinbrook Shire water network.
Testing undertaken by the Hinchinbrook Shire Council and Queensland Health in July 2018 identified a single groundwater bore located near Macknade (located approximately 130km north of Townsville) which contained PFAS levels above the drinking water criteria.
Hinchinbrook Shire Council immediately disconnected the bore from the water supply and the bore no longer forms part of the water supply network.
Subsequent testing carried out by the Hinchinbrook Shire Council and Queensland Health confirms that Hinchinbrook Shire’s water supply is within Australian drinking water quality guidelines, posing no immediate health risk to people.
The Department of Environment and Science is working with the Hinchinbrook Shire Council and other State Government departments to investigate potential sources of the PFAS.
Macknade (Queensland) – Aluminium
Sampling for aluminium in raw water sources shows small quantities in all bores, except for two abnormal historical results that occurred in a Macknade Combined Bore sample and a Halifax Combined Bore sample. On 21st June 2000 a sample was taken for aluminium from both the Macknade Combined Bore and the Halifax Combined Bore and the reading for aluminium was 0.8 mg/L and 0.17 mg/L respectively. These results were a large variation against the other samples taken over the period. These bores have been rehabilitated within the
past 5 years and the latest readings show low levels. Aluminium levels in the treated and reticulated water remain constant and do not show any trends, exceedances or spikes.
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Water carting will begin to the town of Pooncarie south of Broken Hill on Thursday, because of a delay in getting approval to use the town’s newly constructed bore.
At a specially-called meeting on Tuesday night, Wentworth Shire councillors were told Pooncarie’s treatment plant was no longer able to ensure the drinking water supply from the Darling River met safe drinking water standards.
As the water level declines its quality is becoming lower, and the plant is reportedly having trouble dealing with algae and other issues as the situation worsens.
Emergency water carting has been organised because the state government hasn’t given the council permission to use the town’s newly constructed bore.
Wentworth mayor Bill Wheeldon said he’s furious about the holdup, especially given the state government is subsidising the water carting.
“That’s the stupid part about it,” he said.
“They’ve got a bore that the state government’s paid for but they haven’t done the paperwork, they haven’t approved the licence.
“It’s pathetic.”
Cr Wheeldon said there’s no indication as to when the licence might be approved.
The ABC has contacted the office of state water minister Niall Blair for a response.
“It seems so peculiar that the government should subsidise carting water to Pooncarie, but they won’t give us a bit of paper to say that we’re allowed to use the bore that they’ve paid for,” Cr Wheeldon said.
A Red Alert level warning (high alert) for blue-green algae has been issued for the Darling River at Pooncarie in the Lower Darling Region. Environmental conditions are currently well suited to algal growth due to high temperatures and low flows in the river.
A Red Alert level warning indicates that people should not undertake recreational activities where they may come into direct contact with the water such as swimming, as well as domestic uses including showering and washing. Contact with the water may also pose a threat to livestock and pets.
People are advised not to enter the water, drink untreated water or bathe in water drawn from the river while this Red Alert level warning is in place. Town water supplies remain unaffected and safe to drink.
Livestock owners are reminded to continue to check stock water supplies for blue-green algae and to remove stock from foreshores where surface scum is visible or blue-green algae are suspected.
People should not eat mussels or crayfish from Red Alert warning areas. Any fish caught should be cleaned and washed thoroughly in uncontaminated water and any internal organs disposed of before consumption.
Blue-green algae usually appear as green paint-like scums on the water, near the edges, or as greenish clumps throughout the water. It makes the water appear dirty, green or discoloured and generally has a strong musty or earthy odour.
The species of blue-green algae identified are potentially toxic and may cause gastroenteritis in humans if consumed and skin and eye irritations after contact. Boiling the water does not remove algal toxins.
Blue-green algae occur naturally and can reproduce quickly in favourable conditions where there is still or slow-flowing water, abundant sunlight and sufficient levels of nutrients.
It is not possible to predict how long the algae will remain at high levels. Regular monitoring will continue, and the alert will be lifted as soon as the high levels of algae dissipate.
People who believe they may have been affected by blue-green algae are advised to seek medical advice.
Algal red alert for Lower Darling River at Pooncarie and Burtundy
27 February 2018 A red level warning (high alert) for blue-green algae has been issued for the Lower Darling River from Pooncarie to Burtundy inclusive, WaterNSW announced today. This red alert may slowly move further downstream with water flow although current results are at amber levels.
WaterNSW takes into account water quality considerations such as blue-green algal concentrations when deciding on release rates under the current Lower Darling operations plan, which was formulated in consultation with downstream landholders.
We’ll be bathing in salt water’: At the epicentre of Australia’s big drought
Aug 31 2019. https://www.smh.com.au/environment/sustainability/we-ll-be-bathing-in-salt-water-at-the-epicentre-of-australia-s-big-drought-20190828-p52lsx.html
If Rod Barclay or other firefighters get the call that a house is ablaze in the north-western NSW town of Warren, chances are they won’t bother to put it out.
“Our priority is to save lives first, save water second,” Barclay says on Thursday outside Warren’s two-tanker fire station.
Should one of the town’s typical three-bedroom weatherboard homes ignite, Fire and Rescue NSW crews will only turn their hoses on the fire if they have to rescue anyone inside. Otherwise it will be sacrificed and water used merely to spray neighbouring homes if flames threaten to spread.
“Warren is the first location in which we’re undertaking this new strategy,” says Gary Barber, the Dubbo-based Fire & Rescue commander. “We could easily waste a couple of thousand litres on a house that’s going to be lost,” he says. “That water can certainly be used much better elsewhere in the community.”
Warren, nestled beside the Macquarie River and midway between Brisbane and Melbourne, is at the epicentre of the worst drought to hit that region of inland NSW since European settlement.
Not only is the town a gateway to one of Australia’s most important wetlands – the fast desiccating Macquarie Marshes – but it is also the last point to which the Macquarie River will flow for possibly many months. Last week, the NSW government ordered a lifting of the main weir at Warren to ensure communities fed by a diversion channel won’t run out of water.
Peter Vlatko, the general manager of Cobar Shire Council, which covers towns almost totally dependent on that channel says conditions were now well past a worst-case scenario. “All of a sudden – holy shit!” he says. “Now it’s out of the ballpark.”
WaterNSW data supports that view. Inflows to the giant Burrendong Dam near Wellington – which regulates flows into the Macquarie – amounted to 99 gigalitres over the past two years, or just 6 per cent of the average.
Mayor of Warren Shire Milton Quigley says “it’s not much in the public” that the town’s fire crews won’t squander water on a house that’s going up.
On paper the town should be relatively well off, with abundant groundwater to compensate for the demise of river flows. That source, however, supplies the town with drinking water. Tapping it with fire pumps would run the risk of contamination and so is illegal, Quigley says as he stands near one of Warren’s weirs. To aid in an emergency, a 45,000-litre tanker is parked in the shire’s depot, in case the hospital, school or other major site catches fire.
If the lack of river flows weren’t bad enough, Warren’s groundwater may not be guaranteed either. “The water table is going lower and it’s becoming saltier,” says the shire’s general manager Glenn Wilcox. If the trend continues, he adds, “We’ll never run dry but we’ll be bathing in salt water.”
The council was so concerned that it sent samples to NSW Health for testing. That agency told the TheSun-Herald and Sunday Age that sodium levels came in at 276 milligrams per litre, or slightly higher than the average since 2001. “The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines note that people may taste sodium in water above 180 mg/L,” NSW Health said. “The guidelines also state that ‘in major Australian reticulated supplies, sodium concentrations vary from 3 mg/L to 300 mg/L, with a typical value of 50 mg/L’.”
Stuart Khan, a water expert at the University of NSW, notes those guidelines also warn that “medical practitioners treating people with severe hypertension or congestive heart failure should be aware if the sodium concentration in the patient’s drinking water exceeds 20 mg/L”.
Wilcox says water conductivity – another measure of quality – had also jumped four-fold or more. “It’s definitely worth watching closely,” Khan says. “Something must have changed, for sure.”
One person to have witnessed huge change in Warren is 78-year-old George Riley, an elder of the Wayilwan people and chair of the Warren Macquarie Local Aboriginal Lands Council.
As a child, he swam and fished in the Ewanmar Creek near Warren. “It was like a supermarket,” Riley says. Now the creek is bone dry despite being declared an “Aboriginal Place” by the state government in 2016.
Known as Beemunnel, the area had been a remarkable site for generations of Indigenous people, including for the first half of Riley’s life. About 24 families, numbering more than 100 people, lived self-sufficiently in homes made from flattened kerosene tins and bark and whatever other materials they could gather.
From about the 1950s, when government policy shifted to forced assimilation, local authorities pressured one family after another to leave. Each home was bulldozed when they did, their bora ground for initiation ceremonies dug up to provide earth for nearby road building, and a garbage dump deliberately plonked nearby.
With that history, Riley has no expectation Beemunnel will get access to river flows soon. “Irrigators, the town, the environment,” Riley lists the priorities, all ahead of traditional owners’ concern. “It’s dead last, that’s for sure.”
‘It’s not the crop you plant, it’s how much water you take’
Irrigators are aware they have come in for much of the blame for excessive extraction from the Macquarie and other drying rivers in the Murray-Darling Basin. “There’s been a lot of negativity about cotton,” says chief of the National Irrigators’ Council Steve Whan. “It’s not the crop you plant, it’s how much water you take.”
He says the industry has had to take a large share of the reduction in water use, as part of the $13 billion Murray-Darling Basin Plan. He points to Australian Bureau of Statistics figures showing irrigators used 7800 gigalitres, not far shy of half the 13,000 GL take before the plan was put in place.
While many cotton and other farmers managed a crop near Warren last season, few will in the coming year. “It’s looking pretty bad,” he says. “It’s just got worse and worse.”
The industry is struggling to retain staff, which is made harder because nobody knows when the rains will return. The Bureau of Meteorology said this week it expects a drier than average end to the year, while temperatures for almost the whole country can be expected to be hotter than normal.
“All the critical town needs and the needs of the river come before the farmers,” Whan says.
Drive north of Warren towards the Ramsar-listed Macquarie Marshes, though, and it’s easy to see why a lot of rain will be needed to revive the land and its remaining native flora and fauna. The Ramsar Convention is an international agreement to protect wetlands, many of them hosting migratory birds, that are important to wildlife and broader ecosytem health. Australia has 66 such Ramsar sites.
“It’s going to take floods and floods and floods – just to fill up the dams,” says Mel Gray, a convenor of the Dubbo branch of environmental group Healthy Rivers as she points to a six-metre-high embankment built near the Marshes.
Gray says the irrigation industry likes to state that extraction only amounts to about 17 per cent of average flows, with the environment getting the rest, but in dry years that can rise to 60 per cent or more. For the 200,000-hectare Marshes, that has meant virtually no water reaching them this year, and little likelihood of fresh flow soon – especially now the weir is being raised at Warren.
Richard Kingsford, a leading ecologist at the University of NSW, said the Marshes are one of the important waterbird hotspots in the Murray-Darling Basin, with a very high diversity of waterbirds, including many threatened species such as Australasian bittern and painted snipe.
“These wetlands have evolved to cope with dry times but the dry times are getting longer and more severe and consequently the wet times are less frequent, less extensive and don’t last as long,” Kingsford says. “The last flood event when all the waterbirds were breeding on all the systems in the Macquarie Marshes was in 2000,” he adds. “Large floods are critical for triggering magnificent breeding events of many species but they don’t happen as often or with so many species.”
When Leanne Hall first arrived at The Mole, a property sprawling more than 5500 hectares on the north-western edge of the Macquarie Marshes, the water was lapping to the levee bank as a slow-moving flood covered the land.
That was a quarter of a century ago. “There were hundreds of pelicans out there,” Hall says as she looked out from her living-room window this week over a grassless plain. “When the water comes through, it just comes to life.”
Those moments of flood clearly brought joy to the fourth-generation graziers. The family’s photo collage on the wall is a celebration of the wet years when the Macquarie is in robust flow, bringing reed beds to life and drawing spoonbills, herons, egrets and ibises – among some 200 different species.
After a tour to a favourite family picnic spot on a short bend in the Macquarie River – now bone dry – the Halls take visitors to a patch of river red gums that are dead or dying, starved of over-bank flows.
The Mole has all but destocked, down from 720-odd Angus cattle to just 20, and there’s not been a forage crop to feed them for two years.
The toll is more than financial. Gone are those family gatherings by the Macquarie River, which Garry Hall equates to living in Sydney with a view of the harbour. “This is a big deal,” he says, pausing between each word, as he stands with his wife among the lifeless trunks.
“The change I see for me and the Marshes is that we’re going to have to wait so much longer after this drought than ever before to begin our recovery,” he says.
If farmers are doing it tough, miners dependent on dwindling flows may not be far behind. North-west towards Cobar, a string of gold, copper and other mines need the water being diverted at Warren because groundwater reserves are few and far between.
Vlatko, the Cobar shire’s general manager, says that with Burrendong Dam at 4.6 per cent full and falling, the town has been told the Macquarie will cease natural flows as soon as November. Pumps to extract “dead water” below current release levels could extend that to next May.
Some small towns such as Hermidale are already trucking in water and others such as Nymagee might not be far behind, Vlatko says.
Cobar has cut daily water use by one-third to 2 million litres a day and that tally will likely double as summer approaches and residents turn on their evaporative coolers to fend off the days, if not weeks, of 40-degree heat.
Without relieving rains, “one day the mines will have to stop working because they don’t have any water,” he says. “The domino effect [on the town] would be huge.”
A last resort “and very expensive one” would be to bring in water by train, but even that option could barely supply a quarter of the town’s needs alone. “We won’t be drinking tea, we’ll be drinking beer,” he jokes.
More seriously, Vlatko says it wouldn’t just be Cobar in trouble if there’s no water. “For us to run out of water – it’s unthinkable,” he says. “But it’s not only us, it’s the whole state.”
A waterborne disease outbreak occurred in the town of Havelock North in the Hawkes Bay region of the North Island of New Zealand in August 2016. 5500 of the town’s residents became ill with campylobactersiios, 45 were subsequently hospitalised, and there was a possible contribution to four deaths. A public inquiry was established in September 2016 to firstly consider the causes of the outbreak and who was responsible, and secondly to recommend measures to prevent similar incidents in the future. The paper describes the setting up of the inquiry, the inquiry process and findings; and finally the likely sweeping changes anticipated for the regulatory framework for drinking water in New Zealand.
Introduction
In August 2016 a waterborne disease outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred in the town of Havelock North in the Hawkes Bay region of the North Island of New Zealand. 5500 of the town’s 14,000 residents were estimated to have become ill with campylobacteriosis, and 45 subsequently hospitalised. It is possible that the outbreak contributed to four deaths, and a number continue to suffer health complications.
A public inquiry was established to firstly consider the causes of the outbreak and who was responsible (report published in May 2017), and secondly to recommend measures to prevent similar incidents in the future (report published in December 2017).
The paper describes the setting up of the inquiry, the inquiry process and findings; and finally the likely sweeping changes anticipated for the regulatory framework for drinking water in New Zealand.
[Because the government’s response to the second stage report public is not expected until the end of February 2018, this version of the paper is not able to include those details. By the time the final version of the paper is due, the government’s reaction should be known, and the likely direction of regulatory change will be clearer.]
Water supply organisational structure
The regulatory framework for drinking water in New Zealand is established under the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA), the Local Government Act 2002 (LGA), and the Health Act 1956 (Health Act).
Each Act deals with different, but often overlapping, aspects of supplying drinking water.
The RMA is targeted at protecting the sources of drinking water and assigns primary responsibility for protecting these sources to regional councils through their prescribed functions under the Act and through a national environmental standard for protecting sources of human drinking water.
The LGA provides local authorities with mechanisms and responsibilities for protecting the needs of their communities in relation to the sourcing, treatment, and supply of drinking-water.
In the case of Havelock North, the supplier is the Hastings District Council (HDC). The regulatory framework for water supply is set out in the Health Act (which references the Drinking Water Standards for NZ (DWSNZ)), which is administered by the Ministry of Health (MoH). The assessment of compliance is undertaken by a Drinking Water Assessor (DWA) who is based in the District Health Board (DHB). The DHB in this case is the Hawkes Bay DHB (HBDHB).
The Regional Council responsible for the RMA in this region is the Hawkes Bay Regional Council (HBRC).
Outbreak event
Contaminated drinking water was the source of the campylobacteriosis outbreak in Havelock North in August 2016, with sheep faeces the likely source of the campylobacter. It is highly likely that the heavy rain that inundated paddocks neighbouring Brookvale Road caused contaminated water to flow into a pond about 90 metres from Brookvale Road bore 1. On 5 and 6 August 2016, this water entered the aquifer from which the Brookvale Road bore 1 abstracts, and the well pump conveyed the contamination into the reticulation. The first evidence of a substantial number of illness cases was on the morning of 12 August, and that coincided with the confirmed presence of E. coli in the bore water. That evening chlorination was implemented and the network fully flushed. A boil water notice was released at 6:40pm. Gastroenteritis cases continued at high levels until 17 August. By 25 August no further fresh cases were reported.
Public inquiry
In September 2016 the New Zealand government established an inquiry into the outbreak. The Inquiry Panel comprised three members: Hon Lynton Stevens QC, Dr Karen Poutasi CNZM, and Anthony Wilson ED.
Due to a high level of public interest in the matters being considered, the hearings were open to the public and held in the local district court. Early in the process it was decided to break the inquiry in to two stages.
Stage 1 of the Inquiry focused on identifying:
The cause(s) of the outbreak
Whether any person or organisation was at fault.
The adequacy and appropriateness of responses by all parties.
Prior to 12th August 2016, what was known, or should have reasonably been known, by all parties
Was the level of contingency planning for a contamination event appropriate?
The Stage 1 report was released in May 2017.
Stage 2 of the Inquiry was focused on the systemic issues with drinking water supplies, and measures that could be taken to reduce the likelihood of such an outbreak occurring again.
In order to provide focus for Stage 2 of the Inquiry, a list of issues and questions was published by the Inquiry Panel, and submissions invited. The issues included:
Drinking water partnerships and collaboration.
Drinking water safety and compliance levels in New Zealand.
Nature and extent of regional council’s responsibility for drinking water.
Type and level of regulation of drinking water suppliers (e.g. Are systems needed for licensing, competency, training, etc.?). Should there be dedicated drinking water supply entities?
Are changes necessary to monitoring and testing, regulation of analytical laboratories, protozoa risk, secure groundwater, and wellheads and casings?
Regulatory framework – Health Act, DWSNZ,and supporting regulatory tools.
Outbreak management.
The report from Stage 2 was published in December 2017.
Government processes
The existing drinking water regulatory regime was introduced by an amendment to the 1956 Health Act in 2007 and updating of the DWSNZ in 2008. A feature of DWSNZ is that it allows for what is classified as “secure bore water” to not need treatment.
The Health Act and DWSNZ changes were phased in, based on supply size, with mandatory DWSNZ compliance albeit with the proviso of a need to take “all practical steps” to achieve this. The Health Act also made the preparation of a water safety plan mandatory for supplies serving more than 500 people. The government opposition at the time (the National Party) opposed the introduction of the regulatory regime, but an election in 2008 saw the National Party become the new Government. Sensitive to the political risks of stringently enforcing the new Act, the MoH advanced a “softly, softly” regulatory approach to the DHBs which resulted in an absence of any regulatory enforcement. While that approach may have been prudent in 2008, the question that has been raised by the inquiry is whether it should have continued until the present.
In September 2017 a general election returned to Government the party that had introduced the original regulatory regime in 2007 (Labour). The new Government has described itself as a Government of change and is now considering the far reaching and bold recommendations from the Inquiry.
While some of the recommendations from the inquiry can be quickly and easily implemented, the major changes will require new legislation, the establishment of new organisations and changes to the way in which regulation is carried out. They may also legislate for water suppliers to carry out actions that water suppliers (Councils) oppose (e.g. mandatory chlorination). If it chooses to do so, implementing the major recommendations from the Inquiry will take time and commitment from the new Government. But it highlights the rarely discussed role that central government politics can play in the delivery of safe drinking water to communities.
Stage 1 inquiry findings
The Stage 1 report was released in May 2017. It identified that HDC, HBRC and the DWAs failed to adhere to the high levels of diligence necessary to protect public health. No individuals were named, but a key finding was that “The failings, most notably by the Regional Council and the District Council, did not directly cause the outbreak, although a different outcome may have occurred in their absence”.
The HBRC failed to meet its responsibilities as set out in the Resource Management Act (RMA) as guardian of the aquifers. This was evident by the number of unknown, disused and uncapped bores in the immediate vicinity of the Brookvale road municipal bores; failure to inspect bores, and having a primarily quantity-focused consent monitoring regime rather than also including quality.
HDC did not embrace or implement the high standard of care required of a drinking-water supplier, particularly in light of its experience of a similar outbreak in the same supply in July 1998, and the history of positive E.coli results. As a consequence it made key omissions including its assessment of risks to the supply, and it breached the DWSNZ.
[Note that the supply has been assessed as compliant with the DWSNZ for the period covering the outbreak because the DWA incorrectly assessed the supply as compliant when it was not. In addition, over the 12 month compliance period, the very large number of E. coli samples taken in the distribution system has meant that the positive results became transgressions rather than non-compliances.]
HDC’s failings also included the maintenance practices of its bores; this includes bore head security reports, required by the DWSNZ and critical to the Water Safety Plan (a requirement of the Health Act). Inadequate Emergency Response Plans or contingency planning was also identified as a failing.
The DWAs failed to have a hands-on proactive approach to managing HDC’s drinking water compliance, and in particular HDC’s approach to managing the high number of transgressions in its supply zones.
The inquiry found that, as a whole, the incident was handled reasonably well by HBDHB and HDC, but a number of improvements were identified, including the need for a pre-prepared boil water notice that would have meant that the message to boil drinking water would potentially have reached consumers 2 hours earlier than it did.
One of the main recommendations in the Stage 1 report was the need for collaboration between parties. In particular it was noted that the relationship between HDC and HBRC before August 2016 was described as dysfunctional. As these two parties have vested interest in the first barrier of protection in a multi-barrier water supply system, (the first barrier being the protection of the water source) the need to have a constructive relationship to manage the issues is high and is even prescribed in various acts.
On the basis of this need to collaborate, Justice Stevens prior to the release of the Stage 1 report instructed HDC, HBRC and HBDHB to form a Joint Working Group (JWG) to discuss issues that could or were affecting the water supply. This included current and planned activities in the source water zones that have the potential to cause issues, as well as treatment and operational issues.
Later in the Stage 2 report recommendations, the need to form JWG’s was identified as a systemic issue that a number of other regions across New Zealand also need to action.
Stage 2 inquiry findings and recommendations
The Stage 2 report was released on 5 December 2017. This report was informed by a lot of research as well as a number of submissions responding to the 188 issues covering 24 categories raised by the counsel assisting the Inquiry Panel prior to the Stage 2 hearing in August 2017.
The inquiring hearing began with an expert panel convened by the Inquiry, discussing Dr Steve Hrudey’s six principles of water treatment (similar to those that form the basis of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines):
Pathogens pose the greatest risk to drinking water safety, making pathogen removal and disinfection the paramount concern.
Robust and effective multiple barriers to suit the contamination challenges of the raw water source.
Trouble is usually proceeded by change.
Operators must be capable and responsive.
Drinking water professionals must be accountable to consumers.
Ensuring safety is an exercise in risk management, requiring sensible decisions in the face of uncertainty.
The report includes 51 recommendations, some of which are very bold. Of these, 19 are classified as “Urgent and Early”.
The recommendations include:
Minster of Health to remove the secure bore water status from the DWSNZ without consultation.
MoH and DHBs to encourage universal treatment of all water supplies until it is mandated.
Establish an independent water regulator. The regulator’s role should include licensing, required qualifications of water supply staff, standards, laboratories, samplers, compliance and enforcement.
Until the regulator is established the MoH and DWA should enforce the current requirements. It was noted during the Stage 2 Inquiry that the softly-softly regulatory approach of the MoH where no prosecutions or enforcement action was taken for failing to comply with the DWSNZ or Health Act, had not been successful in improving the standards of compliance over the last 10 years.
That the Resource Management Act is amended to recognise drinking water source protection and the review/rewriting of the National Environmental Standard for drinking water source protection be given a high priority.
Encourage the formation of JWGs until they are mandated by law.
27 changes were recommended to the Health Act, some of these are:
Removing the reference to “all practicable steps”.
Create a standalone DrinkingWater Act.
Mandate water supplies to have at least one effective form of treatment, with very limited exemptions.
Establish a licensing system for suppliers.
Compliance with the DWSNZ should be mandatory. The DWSNZ should be reviewed by experts, with a few sections requiring urgent attention, i.e. secure bore water classification and remove presence/absence testing of E.coli to a quantitative test.
Other changes to the DWSNZ include the addition of advisory on when to issue boil water notices and assessing the requirement of treatment for plumbosolvency.
Review of the standard for drilling soil and rock (NZS 4411) should be carried out, covering the design, construction, as-built records, supervision, operation, inspection, maintenance, refurbishment/renewal and decommissioning of all bores that draw water from any groundwater source water intended for drinking or that penetrate the aquitard of any drinking water catchment. No new wellheads should be constructed below ground.
The inclusion of Critical Control Points (CCP) in Water Safety Plans (WSP) is a strong recommendation with a suggested implementation by 23rd February 2018. A CCP is a short 1 page description of a critical process identifying thresholds for certain key water quality parameters along with duration, actions that need to be taken and who is responsible for carrying out those actions.
A gap in both how laboratories are added to, and removed from, the water supply register has been identified during this inquiry along with a gap in training people in the collection of samples. There are a number of recommendations to improve this area.
A mandatory qualification system that addresses the different disciplines involved in water supply and provides for qualifications, experience and continued professional development. Water New Zealand has started a consultative project to support this recommendation.
Recommendation for dedicated drinking water suppliers. Although structural changes to local government were not included in the terms of reference of the Inquiry, the terms of reference did include the consideration of any changes in the management of drinking water across New Zealand. On the basis of this, the report strongly recommended a further review of various models that could be adopted for water supply as there is clear evidence that increasing the size of a water supply entity provides the critical mass that results in higher levels of competency, resources, compliance, efficiency, and etc. These things then lead to improved public health outcomes.
The Stage 2 report also recommends that the Auditor General audits the implementation of its recommendations over the next 5 years.
Throughout the Stage 2 report there is a strong message about the need for leadership, timeliness and action. It will be interesting to see what recommendations central government decides to accept and how quickly they are implemented.
Regulatory framework changes
While New Zealand was an early adopter of providing treatment for protozoa and a leader in the development of water safety plans, and our standards are well regarded internationally, this was not enough to prevent a major outbreak.
A number of problems, which put New Zealand water supplies at an unacceptable risk were identified by the Inquiry. Some the major problems are:
Poor DWSNZ compliance rates.
An unacceptable level of complacency across the industry.
A serious lack of leadership within the industry.
Use of untreated groundwater for municipal drinking water supplies.
Inadequate resourcing of regulators and water suppliers.
Perhaps the most far reaching recommendation from the Inquiry is to establish a single national regulatory organisation. Currently, responsibility for regulation of drinking water supplies rests with the MoH who contract out the provision of regulatory services to 12 different DHBs. Regulation is not core business for DHBs. The main functions of the DHBs are the provision of health services including hospitals and mental health facilities. DWAs perform a range of functions in addition to drinking water regulation; including border protection, enforcing smoke-free legislation and communicable disease investigations. There are currently 34 DWAs working on drinking water regulation part time. The Inquiry was advised of a need for 45 full time DWAs.
The inquiry recommendation for a single drinking water regulator is seen as going some way to resolving the leadership question. The Stage 2 report identified that leadership encompasses a range of roles including thought leadership, strategic planning, coordination of agencies, promoting collaboration between agencies, publishing updates of templates and guidelines, maintaining centres of expertise, providing data, reports and updates on various industry indicators, pursuing research, overseeing and providing guidance in relation to compliance and enforcement, maintaining links with international bodies and keeping abreast of international practice, and assessing and, where desirable, promoting changes.
This would be the role of the new regulatory organisation, but additionally it would be provided with a mandate to issue compliance orders and take prosecutions where water suppliers were not actively trying to meet regulatory requirements. It is envisioned that creation of such an organisation would improve DWSNZ compliance rates to more acceptable levels.
Additionally, if treatment was to become mandatory and the secure bore water criteria removed from the DWSNZ, it is considered that a strong organisation would be needed to enforce these provisions against potential resistance from some water suppliers.
The recommendation from the inquiry was to extend the functions of the new regulator from assessing compliance of water suppliers to some oversight of laboratories, sampling, licensing of water suppliers, certification of operators and oversight of education and training within the industry.
It goes without saying that such an organisation would need to be well resourced and staffed by highly competent people in a range of disciplines. But such a regulator would not be able to successfully perform these functions in a vacuum and the support of the wider industry to the idea and establishment of such a regulator would be essential to it achieving the outcomes desired.
Conclusion
The public inquiry into the 2016 waterborne disease outbreak in Havelock North in New Zealand, in which 40% of the town became ill, has identified failings, most notably by the water supplier, the environmental regulator and the drinking water regulator. The Inquiry’s final recommendations are bold and far-reaching. These include changes to the regulatory framework (DWSNZ, Health Act, and RMA), the introduction of a new regulator, a licensing system for suppliers and their staff, and investigation of the aggregation of small water suppliers to form larger water supply entities.
In hindsight, the Havelock North supply should not have been assessed as compliant with DWSNZ at the time the outbreak occurred – most significantly the groundwater source and wellheads were not actually “secure”. The event itself would not have happened if HDC had applied the necessary duty of care (as well as other players such as HBRC and the DWA). Despite this, the Inquiry has found many faults with the DWSNZ and recommended that the concept of secure groundwater (use of groundwater without treatment) should be abandoned.
While it is very unfortunate that poor performance by a number of local agencies led to the event itself, and that it has in turn led to significant disruption to the entire water industry, it has uncovered a number of systemic issues in the New Zealand approach to ensuring drinking water safety. We consider that the event represents a once-in-a-generation opportunity to improve New Zealand’s regulatory framework and supporting systems for drinking water.
Given New Zealand’s new Coalition (including Labour) Government’s reform agenda and the demands this will place on its finances, it will be very interesting to see over the next month or so how many of the Inquiry’s recommendations will be adopted and implemented.
Acknowledgements
To those people who died as a result of the Havelock North campylobacteriosis outbreak, those that fell ill, and those continuing to suffer long term consequences.
Ozwater is the Australian Water Association’s annual international water conference and exhibition which takes place in alternating cities each May. To find out more, visit the Ozwater website.
References
Government Inquiry into Havelock North Drinking Water, 2017. Report of the Havelock North Drinking
Water Inquiry: Stage 1. May 2017.
Government Inquiry into Havelock North Drinking Water, 2017. Report of the Havelock North Drinking
Water Inquiry: Stage 2. December 2017.
Abbreviations
DHB – District Health Board
DWA – Drinking Water Assessor
DWSNZ – Drinking Water Standards for NZ 2008
HA (also Health Act) – Health Act 1956.
HBDHB – Hawkes Bay District Health Board
HBRC – Hawkes Bay Regional Council
HDC – Hastings District Council
JWG – Joint Working Group
LGA – Local Government Act 2002
MoH – Ministry of Health
RMA – Resource Management Act 1991
Breaches to Australian Drinking Water Guidelines Levels Only
4-Dec-17 Birkenhead Trihalomethanes – Total 257 µg/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Birkenhead (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2022/23: Birkenhead (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 90ug/L (max), 67.08ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Elizabeth Grove (South Australia) – Trihalomethanes
Breaches to Australian Drinking Water Guidelines Levels Only
10-May-18 Elizabeth Grove Trihalomethanes – Total 258 µg/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Elizabeth Grove (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
2018/19: Elizabeth Grove (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 69ug/L (max), 39.6ug/L (av.)
2022/23: Elizabeth Grove (South Australia) Bromodichloromethane 81ug/L (max), 57.5ug/L (av.)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Since bromodichloromethane was listed in the Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens, additional studies in rats have been identified. Administration of bromodichloromethane in the drinking water increased the combined incidence of benign and malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma) in males (George et al. 2002) and caused benign liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma) in females (Tumasonis et al. 1987).
Cancer Studies in Humans
The data available from epidemiological studies are inadequate to evaluate the relationship between human cancer and exposure specifically to bromodichloromethane. Several epidemiological studies indicated a possible association between ingestion of chlorinated drinking water (which typically contains bromodichloromethane) and increased risk of
cancer in humans, but these studies could not provide information on whether any observed effects were due to bromodichloromethane or to one or more of the hundreds of other disinfection by-products also present in chlorinated water (ATSDR 1989).” (1)
Elizabeth Grove (South Australia) – HAA’s
2/7/19: Elizabeth Grove Total Haloacetic Acid 0.104mg/L
9/6/23: Elizabeth Grove Total Haloacetic Acid 0.128mg/L, (0.115mg/L av. 2022/23)
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
Elizabeth Grove (South Australia) – Chloroketones
29/6/23: Elizabeth Grove (South Australia): 1 1-dichloropropan-2-one 1.2ug/L
“GUIDELINE Data are inadequate to set guideline values for chloroketones in drinking water. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The chloroketones are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between naturally occurring organic matter and chlorine. No data are available on other sources or uses for these compounds. Concentrations of chloroketones in drinking water reported overseas are very low and are estimated at less than 0.01 mg/L.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER In major Australian reticulated supplies 1,1,1-trichloropropanone has been recorded in concentrations up to 0.02 mg/L, but it is usually below the limit of determination of 0.0005 mg/L. No data are available for other chloroketones.
LIMITING FORMATION IN DRINKING WATER The presence of chloroketones in drinking water can be minimised by removing naturally occurring organic matter from the source water, by reducing the amount of chlorine added, or by the use of alternative disinfectants.” 2011 ADWG
Breaches to Australian Drinking Water Guidelines Levels Only
12-Feb-18 Valley View: Trihalomethanes – Total 263 µg/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Valley View (South Australia) – Bromodichloromethane
31/1/22: Valley View Bromodichloromethane 60ug/L (max), 32.75ug/L (av. 2021/22)
2022/23: Valley View Bromodichloromethane 88ug/L (max), 55.5ug/L (av. 2022/23)
WHO Guideline level BDCM: 60ug/L (Australian Guideline for BDCM is included in the Trihalomethane (THM) combined total of BDCM, Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane and Bromoform. THM guideline is 250ug/L)
“Carcinogenicity : Bromodichloromethane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.
Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals: Oral exposure to bromodichloromethane caused tumors at several different tissue sites in mice and rats. Administration of bromodichloromethane by stomach tube caused benign and malignant kidney tumors (tubular-cell adenoma and adenocarcinoma) in male mice and in rats of both sexes, benign and
malignant liver tumors (hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma) in female mice, and benign and malignant colon tumors (adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinoma) in rats of both sexes (NTP 1987, ATSDR 1989, IARC 1991, 1999).
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
19/4/18: Goombungee – Trihalomethanes 1 reticulation point 253ug/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
9/10/17: Meringandan West – Reticulation Point – Trihalomethanes 256μg/L
23/4/18: Meringandan West – 7 x reticulation point (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes 268.0 ug/L; 260.0 ug/L; 276.0ug/L; 283.0 ug/L; 282.0 ug/L; 284.0 ug/L; 260.0 ug/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“The typical concentration of THMs in all of Unitywater’s drinking water schemes is well below 0.25mg/L. However in an isolated event, two sample results in the Pine Rivers North scheme exceeded the health guideline in March 2018. At the time, the area’s water was supplied by Seqwater’s Petrie Water Treatment Plant which was near the end of its working life. This plant was decommissioned in April 2018 and the Pine Rivers North scheme is now connected to the South East Queensland water grid meaning a repeat occurrence is very unlikely.” Unity Water 2017/18
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Pine Rivers North (Queensland) – HAA’s
2017/18: Max Result 124 ug/L, av: 77ug/L, 95th Percentile 118ug/L
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
2012/16: Kalka (South Australia) – Hardness average 338.8mg/L (5 detections out of 5 above guideline)
27/8/19: Kalka (South Australia) Hardness 327mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Kalka (South Australia) – E.coli
The 1997 water quality investigation detected Total Coliform counts in one of the bores and
E. coli in part of the reticulation system (Fitzgerald et al., 2000). The condition of
the casing is fairly good in all three wells, although KA-1 and KA-2 could benefit
from some slot cleaning (Dodds and Sampson, 2000).
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2012/16 – Pipalyatjara (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
August 2012 – November 2016: 694mg/L (average from 5 detections. Five above ADWG)
26/11/19: Pipalyatjara Total Dissolved Solids 745mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
2012/16 – Pipalyatjara (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/16: Hardness average 415.8mg/L (5 detections out of 5 above guideline)
26/11/19: Pipalyatjara Hardness 466mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Pipalyatjara 1997-1999
The salinity of these groundwaters is 640-770 mg/L TDS with nitrate concentrations of 30-35 mg/L and fluoride concentrations < 1 mg/L. These values are all within the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (1996). The 1997 water quality investigation detected total coliform counts in the supply lines (Fitzgerald et al., 2000).
Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
The salinity of Amata groundwaters is 710-1070 mg/L TDS, with nitrate
concentrations of 17-33 mg/L and fluoride concentrations of 0.9-1.4 mg/L. The
salinity is marginal in terms of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (1996).
The 1997 water quality investigation detected total coliform counts in the supply
lines (Fitzgerald et al., 2000).
Amata groundwaters are very hard, in the range 360-530 mg/L calcium
carbonate. Trials of a water softening technology were conducted in Amata in
1998-9 (Downing, 2000). Water conditioning units were installed in a house and
on the town water supply and appeared to be successful in removing and
preventing scale buildup in the pipes and fittings.
2012/16 – Amata (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/16: Amata (South Australia) – Hardness average 408.6mg/L (5 detections out of 5 above guideline)
28/8/19: Amata (South Australia) Hardness 405mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2012/16 – Amata (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
August 2012 – August 2016: Amata (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids 726mg/L (average from 5 detections. Five above ADWG)
28/8/19: Amata (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 761mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
10 February 2014: Pukatja Town Supply at CEDS Treatment Shed (South Australia) 100cfu/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2012/16 – Pukatja (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/16: Hardness average 223.8mg/L (5 detections out of 5 above guideline)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Pukatja (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
26/8/19: Pukatja Total Dissolved Solids 622mg/L
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Pukatja (Ernabella)
The salinity of the Pukatja groundwaters ranges from 420 to 860 mg/L TDS with
nitrate concentrations of 5-16 mg/L and fluoride concentrations of 1.4-1.8 mg/L.
These parameters are generally within the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
(1996) although fluoride is marginal.
Fluoride
7/3/22: Pukatja (South Australia) Fluoride 1.6mg/L (max), (1.26mg/L av. 2021/22)
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
There are three operating supply bores: two solar-pumped bores (B1 and B2) and one diesel-pumped bore which is generally used as a backup. The community’s water use is believed to be about 60 KL/d (1800 KL/month). The regional groundwater quality study in 1997 found that the three community bores had good quality water with 390-670 mg/L TDS (Fitzgerald et al., 2000). However, two additional bores sampled at the Umuwa campground were more saline with 1520 and 1800 mg/L TDS, and also had elevated fluoride concentrations. This level of salinity is unacceptable according to the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (1966).
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Clostridium perfringens
The sample from the diesel bore contained Clostridium perfringens spores, which suggests some contamination with faecal matter in the past, but too long before sampling for other indicator organisms to survive. A potential source of contamination to the aquifer is the periodical disposal in the bush of sewage from the town’s septic tanks.
In the 1999 investigation, water samples from two hand pumps located at Umuwa camping grounds showed a high level of faecal streptococci and also the presence of Clostridium perfringens spores (Piazinska, 2000). Both hand pumps are located within the camping grounds that are used, at times, by large numbers of people. The absence of thermotolerant coliforms indicates that the contamination may have occurred some time before sampling.
GUIDELINE
No guideline value has been set for Clostridium perfringens in drinking water. If used as
an indicator and detected in drinking water, immediate action should be taken, including
investigation of potential sources of faecal contamination.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Clostridium spp are anaerobic, sulfite-reducing, spore-forming bacilli. There are a number of species, of which C. perfringens is uniquely of faecal origin. Largely because it is anaerobic, C. perfringens rarely multiplies in water environments. The spores are smaller than protozoan cysts and oocysts. They are exceptionally resistant to unfavourable conditions in water environments, including temperature and pH extremes, and are also resistant to
disinfection processes such as chlorination…
20 August 2012 – Indulkana (South Australia) – Lead 0.0135mg/L
19 September 2012 – Indulkana TS Drinking Water (South Australia) – Lead 0.1276mg/L
19 August 2013 – Indulkana (South Australia) – Lead 0.0122mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Indulkana (South Australia) Nickel
20 August 2012: Indulkana (South Australia) 0.0406mg/L
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
Indulkana (South Australia) – Chloride
20 August 2012: Indulkana (South Australia) Chloride 622mg/L
20 August 2012: Indulkana (South Australia) Chloride 330mg/L (TS Drinking Water)
26 March 2015: Indulkana (South Australia) Chloride 580mg/L
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Indulkana (South Australia) – Iron
19 August 2013: Indulkana (South Australia) Iron 0.6744mg/L
19 August 2013: Indulkana (South Australia) Iron 0.5531mg/L
26 March 2015: Indulkana (South Australia) Iron 0.3001mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Indulkana – Sodium
19 August 2013: Indulkana (South Australia) – Sodium 340mg/L
19 August 2013: Indulkana TS Drinking Water (South Australia) – Sodium 186mg/L
5 August 2014: Indulkana (South Australia) – Sodium 382mg/L
10 August 2015: Indulkana (South Australia) – Sodium 327mg/L
22 November 2016: Indulkana (South Australia) – Sodium 361mg/L
9/11/21: Indulkana NDW TS Non Potable Sodium 9/11/21 287mg/L (max)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2012 – Indulkana (South Australia) – Sulphate
20 August 2012: Indulkana Sulphate 237mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sulfate in drinking water
should not exceed 250 mg/L. Purgative effects may occur if the concentration exceeds 500 mg/L.
Sulfate occurs naturally in a number of minerals, and is used commercially in the manufacture of numerous products including chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides and insecticides. Sulfate, including sulfuric acid, is also used in mining, pulping, and the metal and plating industries. Barium sulfate is used as a lubricant in drilling rigs for groundwater supply.
In the water industry, aluminium sulfate (alum) is used as a flocculant in water treatment, and copper sulfate is used for the control of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in water storages.
The highest concentrations reported in drinking water overseas are from groundwater supplies where the presence of sulfate is due to natural leaching from rocks. Concentrations have been reported up to 2200 mg/L. In source waters, concentrations are typically less than 100 mg/L.
The taste threshold for sulfate is in the range 250–500 mg/L.” ADWG 2011
2012/16 – Indulkana (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
August 2012 – November 2016: 1500mg/L (average from 6 detections. All Above ADWG)
26/11/19: Indulkana Total Dissolved Solids 1550mg/L (potable/non-potable)
9/11/21: Indulkana TS NDW Non Potable Total Dissolved Solids 1470mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Indulkana (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/16: Indulkana (South Australia) – Hardness average 433.3mg/L (5 detections out of 6 above guideline)
2012/16: Indulkana TS Drinking Water (South Australia) – Hardness average 184.6mg/L (2 detections out of 5 above guideline)
9/11/21: Indulkana TS NDW Non Potable Total Hardness as CaCO3 489mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Iwantja (SA) – Total Dissolved Solids
1997-99: Iwantja (SA)
Bore I-25 has been the greatest and most consistent water supplier, and overall
has supplied over half of the community’s water usage. Other bores have
contributed to the water supply at times, such as I-19 and I-19A between
January and March 1998. Two bores in the Indulkana Range, IR-1 and IR-2, came
on line in the winter of 1999 but were not fitted with monitoring equipment until
October.
The available yield and water quality of the Iwantja bores is (Clarke, 2000):
I -19 ……. 1110 mg/L TDS
I -19A …..780 mg/L TDS
I-25 ……. 1500 mg/L TDS
I-26 …….1000 mg/L TDS
I-27 ……. 3000 mg/L TDS
IR-1 ….. 1900 mg/L TDS
IR-2 ….. 1500 mg/L TDS
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
The salinity of two Iwantja bores sampled in the 1997 water quality survey was
780 and 1110 mg/L TDS, with nitrate concentrations of < 1mg/L and fluoride
concentrations of 0.4 mg/L. There were high iron (3.9-5. 7 mg/L) and radionuclide
concentrations in these groundwaters (Fitzgerald et al., 2000) and also high
iodide concentrations in two bores. These groundwaters are marginal to
unacceptable in terms of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (1996).
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
The council issued a statement on Wednesday last week advising that “low levels” of “pharmaceuticals” – along with artificial sweetener and caffeine – had been detected in the Leyburn town water supply, which comes from an aquifer bore.
Mr See has since told the Free Times that a council investigation of the issue could take “a month or so”, but has assured Leyburn locals the contamination is not a threat to health.
The council has said it believes the contamination is the result of an infiltration of the aquifer which supplies the town by either septic or agricultural material.
The Free Times understands the contamination is most likely to be septic in nature, with a vast array of substances found in septic wastewater, including residue from illicit drugs along with pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, mood-stabilising medications and hormones from oral contraceptives, mostly passed in urine and faeces, with some coming from unneeded medication flushed down the toilet.
The council last Thursday issued a “question and answer” style information statement on the Leyburn contamination, in addition to the initial statement on Wednesday.
It described the test results as “unusual” but reiterated that the level of pharmaceuticals represented no threat to human health.
“Water Treatment Plant Operators collect the samples, Queensland Forensic and Scientific Services Lab analyse the results,” the statement said.
“Council has reported the findings to QHealth and the Department of Water and Energy Supply under the conditions of approval of the drinking water quality management plan as we were unsure of the significance of the result from a public health perspective.
“DEWS has stated that it is not a reportable incident and council is following the recommendations of QHealth.
“QHealth has advised a boil water advisory is not an appropriate response in this instance, and that the levels of pharmaceuticals in the water will not cause harm.
“Further testing has been carried out and the raw and treated water is free from E.coli, we also tested for cryptosporidium and giardia, and these were also not detected.
“SDRC is liaising regularly with QHealth.
“The water is considered safe.
“Investigations will continue to try to find the source. If this is not possible, consideration will be given to providing an additional treatment process for the bore water if this is deemed necessary.
“Various options will be considered depending on the outcome of investigations. However, as this investigation is the early stages, council has not yet finalised options.
“These options may include additional treatment processes or potentially the need for finding an alternative aquifer for supply.”
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
28/11/17 – The Walli (New South Wales) – Chlorine
28/11/17: The Walli (New South Wales) – Chlorine 5.94mg/L
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2012-17: Gingie (NSW) – 3 E.coli detections October 2013-February 2014
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Gingie (NSW) – Total Dissolved Solids
2012/17: Gingie (NSW) High TDS – an average concentration of 616mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Carinda (NSW) – Total Dissolved Solids
2012/17: Carinda (NSW) Total Dissolved Solids 656mg/L (max), 563mg/L (average)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2012-17: Cumborah (NSW) – E.coli 3mpn/100mL (max), (0.1) average
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Cumborah (NSW) – Total Dissolved Solids
2012/17: Cumborah Total Dissolved Solids 677mg/L (max), 501mg/L (average)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
16/2/22: Public Notice Rowena Water Supply. Walgett Shire Council wishes to advise the residents of Rowena that E.coli has been detected in a recent water sample, therefore all residents are asked to boil their tap water before drinking. Council staff are working to identify the problem and the reservoir will be super chlorinated today. Flushing of the mains around the village will be flushed for the next couple of days…
2012-17: Rowena (NSW) – E.coli 3mpn/100mL (max), (0.1) average
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Rowena (NSW) Lead
2012/17 – Rowena (NSW) – Lead 0.01mg/L (max)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Rowena (NSW) – Total Dissolved Solids
2012/17: Rowena Total Dissolved Solids 630mg/L (max), 567mg/L (average)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
E.coli exceedance occurred 8/02/2017 at HVSTE40 Huonville/ Football Club Entrance, Wilmot Rd, Sample Tap. A review of the system found low chlorine residuals within the Ranelagh Reservoir. Reservoir was disinfected and the surrounding pipelines were flushed. A resample was sent for analysis and was clear. Investigation of the cause of the failure was inconclusive.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
E. coli exceedance occurred 14/11/2016 at GOSTE290 Montrose/1 Beneve Crt, Sample Tap in the Glenorchy zone. Bird ingress into the reservoir was identified and the reservoir was cleaned and chlorinated. The reticulation zone was flushed and re-samples were conducted, with re-samples clear of E. coli. The reservoir roof was repaired and subsequently replaced in January 2017.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
E. coli exceedance occurred on 12/09/2016 at GOSTE130 Austins Ferry/Primary School New Sample Tap in the Glenorchy zone. The affected reticulation line was flushed and chlorine levels were checked. The chlorine residuals were also checked at 3 others sites in the Glenorchy zone. A re-sample was sent for analysis, with re-sample clear. Investigation of the cause of the failure was inconclusive.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
E. coli exceedance occurred 10/10/2016 at CLSTE132 Tranmere/10 Norla St in the Clarence zone. A site investigation was conducted to determine the cause of the contamination and the surrounding pipelines were flushed, nearby reservoirs disinfected then a re-sample sent for analysis, which was clear. Investigation of the cause of the failure was inconclusive, however it was determined that the sample tap location was not representative of the network, therefore a new sample tap was installed in a more appropriate location.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
DRY, “desperate” and begging for relief, a Southern Downs town has just been told a vital resource will be ripped away by the end of the year.
Caught in one of one of the worst droughts the town has seen, Karara residents have been told their water supply will be cut off by the end of the year after a decision made in a confidential council meeting on Wednesday morning.
The news, delivered by phone that afternoon, has “shocked” the townspeople of Karara.
“We need this water,” resident Tracey Long said. “We are desperate out here.”
A spokeswoman for Southern Downs Regional Council said the decision had been made to give 11 affected residents a 22,000 litre tank and a one-off fill of drinkable water when the mains connection was removed.
But with rainwater stocks in the region completely depleted, the supply of non-potable water from Canal Creek has become a lifeline for residents.
“I can tell you what, 5000 gallons isn’t going to last us long,” Kerry Wilson said.
With absolutely no water in her five rainwater tanks, Ms Wilson has resorted to buying all her drinking water in bottles from the supermarket.
She is forced to rely on town water for everything else like showering and washing clothes, despite its “dirty” and “disgusting” quality.
Ms Long said some added chlorine to their water to kill the smell.
But cutting off the town water was not the right solution, she said.
“The foot valve that sucks the water up the pipe is sitting on the bottom of Canal Creek and brings up mud and dirty water,” she said.
Residents have asked council to install a floating valve that would pump cleaner water from the surface of the creek.
Mayor Tracy Dobie said the decision to cut off the water arose from consultation with the Karara community.
“Council heard the concerns of Karara residents and worked with them to provide an alternative water supply,” she said.
“Rather than continue with a problematic water supply which is not suitable for domestic use, we have opted to provide those residents connected to the current supply with a tank and a first fill of water at no initial or ongoing cost.”
But many said the cut-off has come out of the blue.
“There was no consultation, we just wish they would have told us they were having this meeting,” Ms Long said.
“We’re a little community that is a long way from Warwick and we are easily forgotten about – if they know about us in the first place.”
Ms Wilson said a council officer had to “google where Karara was” when speaking with her on the phone.
“We have a school out here, remember? Where are they going to get all their water from?”
“We will be demanding a meeting with the mayor and the CEO and no one else,” Ms Wilson.
Logan City Council has advised residents they no longer need to boil their drinking water.
On Friday, more than 2000 Logan residents were advised to boil their tap water or use bottled water after the detection of the potentially harmful E. coli bacteria.
On Sunday the council advised the boil water notice had been lifted for residents of Cedar Vale, Woodhill, Veresdale and Veresdale Scrub.
“Results of drinking water tests have complied with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and Queensland Government Public Health Regulations, and is safe to drink and use for normal purposes,” a statement from the council said.
Residents were advised to flush all water-using fixtures for one minute, drain and flush any ice-making machine and change pre-treatment filters.
EARLIER: More than 2000 Logan residents have been warned to boil their drinking water after E. coli was detected in their council water supply.
Residents in the rural Logan suburbs of Cedar Grove, Cedar Vale and Woodhill have been advised to either boil their tap water or use bottled water after the detection of the potentially harmful bacteria.
“Council is working closely with Queensland Health to resolve the situation and we are performing additional testing until we resolve the situation,” a Logan City Council spokesman said.
“This may take up to two days.
“This precautionary boil water notice will stay in effect until the Logan City Council and Queensland Health are confident there is no public health concern.”
The spokesman said the warning would apply “until further notice”, as the council undertook action such as the flushing of mains pipes.
“Regular updates will be provided to affected residents,” the spokesman said.
Cooled boiled water should be used for drinking, brushing teeth, washing or preparing food, making ice, preparing baby formula and bathing infants.
The council spokesman said mains water could still be used for showering, washing dishes (provided they were air-dried), washing clothes and flushing toilets.
“People should bring drinking water to a boil and then allow water to cool before using it or storing it in a clean, closed container for later use,” the council spokesman said.
“Kettles with automatic cut-off switches are suitable for producing boiled water. Variable temperature kettles should be set to boil.”
Bourke resident Fleur Thompson says she’s battled a few health issues this year, including hypertension and kidney stones.
So when she found out her outback town’s emergency drinking water supply was high in sodium she was worried.
“I got some tests done and my kidneys were not functioning at full capacity,” she said.
“The one doctor who I did get to speak to about it was really concerned.
“He was concerned about the rest of town having to deal with it as well.”
Bourke’s drinking water comes from the Darling River.
Last summer it got so low the town had to start using a backup supply of bore water from the Great Artesian Basin, which had elevated sodium levels.
The same thing happened at Walgett, about 200 kilometres away, when the Barwon and Namoi Rivers there dried up.
Community concern
The Walgett Aboriginal Medical Service and the Dharriwaa Elders Group have both expressed concerns about the potential effect on community health.
Chairman of the Elders Group Clem Dodd said the bore water was not healthy.
“You got to have water. I don’t care who you are — animal or person, you can’t go without water,” he said.
“But too much salt in it [is not good] … you got to get good water.”
The salt in the Bourke and Walgett bore water meets the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines but it exceeds the aesthetic (taste) limit.
There is no health-based sodium limit in those guidelines.
Health authorities contacted local doctors about potential health implications for patients with kidney disease, high blood pressure, heart failure, or who are pregnant.
‘Too much salt’
Jacqui Webster, a salt reduction expert from the George Institute for Global Health, has been working with the Walgett community on improving health outcomes there.
She said, while most salt in the average diet came from food, high salt levels in drinking water was a genuine health concern in these communities.
“Too much salt in the diet increases blood pressure, and increased blood pressure is one of the key contributors to premature death from heart disease and stroke in Australia,” Dr Webster said.
“You’ve got a high proportion of the community who are Aboriginal people, and we know Aboriginal communities already suffer disproportionately from high rates of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and kidney disease.
“It’s really important that poor diets — including the high sodium content of the water — are addressed.”
Dr Webster said sodium could also make the drinking water taste unpleasant and people may turn to sugary drinks instead, which could compound health issues.
Brief reprieve
There is currently some water back in the weirs at Walgett and Bourke.
But that water is only expected to last until the end of the year at most.
Bourke Shire Council general manager Ross Earl said if it did not rain the town would have to switch back to a mix of river and bore water.
“We were extremely hopeful that this time we’d be going back to river water full time,” he said.
“But clearly we’re preparing for the worst-case scenario — yet again.”
Heeding the call, but at what cost?
The New South Wales Government has now heeded the concerns of residents who are worried about sodium levels in their bore water.
It has committed several million dollars to remove salt from the emergency bore water supplies in Bourke and Walgett using desalination technology called reverse osmosis.
Deputy Premier John Barilaro said the Government’s first priority was water security but acknowledged there were water quality issues in some areas.
“We’re now moving away from surface water to groundwater and that, of course, is about making sure we don’t run out of water,” he said.
“We know that there are high levels of sodium and that is of concern.
“We know there are no general health impacts from that … but we do advise that for people with any medical condition to go see a local GP.
“But we want to look at long term resolving this issue and that’s why we’re prepared to put the investment in.
“We hope to have this all up and ready to go by September–October this year.”
The director of the Global Water Institute at the University of New South Wales, Greg Leslie, has also been working with the Walgett community and he said the new technology was a worthwhile outlay.
“Treating the water to remove salt is a standard water treatment procedure,” he said.
“In other parts of the country — Western Australia, the Northern Territory, South Australia — communities that are on bore water would use reverse osmosis technology routinely to take salt out.
“The advantage of doing it in a town like Walgett is that you already have 90 per cent of the infrastructure needed for those systems, and the reverse osmosis is just bolted on to the end.”
Professor Leslie said reverse osmosis units could be switched on and off as required.
But Bourke’s Ross Earl said even if the NSW Government foots the bill for the reverse osmosis technology, there would be additional running costs for his council.
“I agree you probably can’t put a cost on someone’s health, but we’d really need to get the costings to see what it would cost,” Mr Earl said.
Walgett Shire Council general manager Greg Ingham said he welcomed any initiative to improve the bore water quality in town.
But he also expressed concerns about potential additional costs.
“We don’t want council and our community to be burdened with ongoing operational costs to run desalination equipment,” he said.
An issue far and wide
Bourke and Walgett are not the only towns on Great Artesian Basin bore water.
Many places in New South Wales and Queensland have been on this bore water for years, such as Moree, Cumborah, Burren Junction, Barcaldine, Birdsville, and Winton.
While the quality of that water varies substantially between locations, there are town water supplies with sodium levels similar to that of Bourke and Walgett.
Lightning Ridge is an oft-quoted example.
Tourists flock to the town’s hot bore baths, which are famed for their potentially therapeutic benefits. But drinking that water is a whole other issue.
There has been no significant public outcry in Lightning Ridge over its drinking water supply and it is not slated to receive a reverse osmosis plant.
But Dr Webster said the health issue remained the same.
“I’ve been contacted by a member of the community in Lightning Ridge who is concerned about the salt levels in the water,” she said.
“I think it’s important that we are considering the long-term implications of high sodium levels in the water — not just in Walgett but in all of the communities where this is relevant.”
NSW Regional Town Water Supply Coordinator James McTavish said, while the concerns of some residents in Walgett and Bourke were valid, the water was safe.
“I’d stress that the water meets Australian drinking water guidelines for safety, but there is an issue associated with the detectability of sodium,” he said.
Desalination has often been more commonly associated with coastal cities, where drinking water supplies are topped up with treated seawater during droughts.
But as parched towns dig for water, it is looming as a bigger issue for inland populations too.
Fleur Thompson in Bourke hopes the local council will embrace reverse osmosis technology and use it to take the sodium out of the town’s bore water.
“The cost for maintaining these systems may be high but the potential health and human cost is higher,” she said.
Regional towns turn to mobile desal plants to fix salty drinking water supplies
Towns along the dwindling Barwon-Darling River system, in the state’s parched north-west, hope that mobile desalination plants will provide relief from brackish drinking water as the drought tightens its grip.
Some locals in the small outback towns of Brewarrina, Bourke and Walgett have resorted to using bottled water as their main source of drinking water, despite assurances from health authorities that the tap water, though extremely salty, is safe to drink.
Brewarrina, which sources its water supply from a weir on the Barwon River, will on Tuesday become the first of the three towns to switch on a desalination plant, which the council has borrowed from Tenterfield Council, more than 600 kilometres away.
Mayor Phillip O’Connor said the town’s raw water supply was purified at the local treatment plant, but this process could not remove the high sodium content that resulted from the lack of inflow into the river system.
“The longer the river doesn’t run, the saltier the water gets. The water is drinkable but it has got a bad taste to it,” Cr O’Connor said.
The mobile plant, which was originally donated to Tenterfield council by charity Rural Aid, will filter the water from the treatment plant through a process of reverse osmosis. It has the capacity to provide up to 70,000 litres of drinking water a day.
However, the plant will not connect directly to Brewarrina’s water supply, and will instead function as a refilling station, located in the town’s Visitor Centre car park, where residents can bring containers and bottles to fill up and take back to their homes.
The Berejiklian government is spending $10 million to install similar desalination plants in Bourke and Walgett, but these will be attached to the towns’ water supplies, meaning residents will be able to access the water directly from their taps.
Both towns are forced to rely on emergency bore water when their river supplies run low or cease, but testing has revealed higher sodium levels than those specified in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines on aesthetic (taste) grounds.
Walgett, on the junction of the Namoi and Barwon rivers, has been surviving on emergency bore water for much of the plast three years. Bourke’s supply, which is drawn from a weir on the Darling River, was boosted by 100 millimetres of rain in November, but without further replenishment it will be forced to switch to bore water in the coming months.
Bourke Shire Council general manager Ross Earl said the plant would have the capacity to generate as much as one megalitre of water a day, sufficient for the demands of Bourke’s 1900 residents.
That will be enough water to look after Bourke’s needs,” Mr Earl said. “All houses will be connected to the desalination supply.”
NSW Water Minister Melinda Pavey said the government was also considering reverse osmosis plants for coastal communities, including Forster on the state’s Mid North Coast.
“The recent rain has improved both water quality and supply for the coast, however we remain on standby should this change,” Ms Pavey said.
Bourke’s water safe to drink. For the first time in its history, Bourke is on bore water.
As of Monday, Bourke Council switched to bore water from deep in the Great Artesian Basin for the town’s filtered supply for drinking, household and commercial purposes.
Bourke Council General Manager Ross Earl said the bore water poses no risk to health and had been tested and approved by the Department of Health.
“We have been using bore water from Walkden’s Bore to supplement the filtered water supply so what we have at the moment is water combined from both sources,” Mr Earl said.
“Combining the two sources makes it easier to treat and all the water is being processed through the Bourke Water Treatment Plant prior to its reticulation through the filtered water system.”
1/9/17: Epping Forest – Dichloroacetic acid exceedance at 108 ug/L
1/9/17: Epping Forest – Trichloroacetic acid exceedance at 169 ug/L
15/8/17: Epping Forest – Trichloroacetic acid exceedance at 115 ug/L
Australian Guideline Level: Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Epping Forest (Tasmania) – Colour
2016/17: Epping Forrest (Tasmania) – Colour 18 HU (max), 12.7 HU (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
E. coli: 28/05/2018 Detection of 1 MPN/100mL at BPSTE02
E. coli 04/06/2018 Detection of 4.1 MPN/100mL at BPSTE02
E. coli 12/06/2018 Detection of 3 MPN/100mL at BPSTE02
E. coli 18/06/2018 Detection of 3.1 MPN/100mL at BPSTE02
E. coli 25/06/2018 10:48 Detection of 1 MPN/100mL at BPSTE03 (investigation sample)
E. coli 25/06/2018 10:50 Detection of 6.3 MPN/100mL at BPSTE03 (investigation sample)
E. coli 25/06/2018 10:57 Detection of 6.3 MPN/100mL at BPSTE02
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Bronte Park (Tasmania) – Trichloroacetic Acid
2016/17 Bronte Park (Tasmania) Trichloroacetic Acid 0.19mg/L
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
There are no epidemiological studies of TCA carcinogenicity in humans. Most of the human health data for chlorinated acetic acids concern components of complex mixtures of water disinfectant by-products. These complex mixtures of disinfectant by-products have been associated with increased potential for bladder, rectal, and colon cancer in humans [reviewed by Boorman et al. (1999); Mills et al. (1998)].” Ref: tmp/Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) CASRN 76-03-9 IRIS US EPA.htm
2017/18 – Bronte Park (Tasmania) – Turbidity
2017/18 – Bronte Park (Tasmania) – Turbidity 15.4 NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
8/12/17: “Weekly sample detected E. coli of 1 MPN/100mL at ABSTE288. An incident was declared and DoH was immediately notified. Customers were notified (direct and water carters) and bottled water was provided. A dispatch crew was sent to perform resampling and isolate and inspect the system. Subsequent sampling showed ABSTE288 was clear of E. coli; however the tank sampled detected E. coli of 2 MPN/100mL. Water carters advised to utilise Electrona Fill Station until a new chlorinator installed, commissioned and system back online.” Tas Water Annual Drinking Water Quality Report 2017/18 Section B
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
A Boil Water Alert was issued on 25 April 2018 due to an E.coli detection in the South Hobart area (a sub-section of the Greater Hobart system). The root cause was an opened valve causing unchlorinated water to flow into the reticulated system. Flushing and dosing of the system was carried out and further testing demonstrated that the water was safe to consume and the BWA was removed on 27 April.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Boil Water Alert: 31 October 2017 – 2 November 2017. A BWA was issued for the Risdon Vale area on 31 October 2017 due to E.coli detected in a routine monitoring sample. Remedial actions included flushing and scouring the affected area, isolating the Risdon Brook Reservoir for inspection and cleaning. Samples taken on 31 October and 1 November were clear of E.coli.
Escherichia coli should not be detected in any 100 mL sample of drinking water. If detected
in drinking water, immediate action should be taken including investigation of potential
sources of faecal contamination.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
The water in Cobar is brown and the residents aren’t happy.
Many community members have taken to social media to voice their disbelief of their brown, sometimes black, town water.
Cobar Shire general manager Peter Vlatko said while the colour is undesirable, the water is still drinkable.
“The town has some old pipes in operation made of cast iron and over a period of time there have been rust reactions to the cast iron so we’ve had to up the ante in chemical,” he said.
“Combined with the flooding in the Bogan River and what we do at our end reacts to the cast iron as well as more people using the water with the recent hot weather.”
Cobar resident Mere Brands said she noticed the water when she was washing her hands.
“I went to wash my hands and I’ve seen that the water was so dirty I was unable to do my washing,” she said.
The issue is in six kilometres of galvanised pipes in the township of Cobar.
Mr Vlatko said the water has always been coloured, but it has been accentuated in the repeated flooding the river last year and the extreme hot weather, thus increased usage of the water in town.
The council has implemented water restrictions to ease the usage of the pipes.
I went to wash my hands and I’ve seen that the water was so dirty I was unable to do my washing,
Mere Brand, Cobar resident.
“Today’s (Wednesday’s) water is crystal clear. Or you might have brown water and your neighbours might be okay,” he said.
“This is not a five minute job, significant work needs to be done, we can’t have pipes delivering this coloured water.”
Member for Barwon Kevin Humphries met with Cobar mayor Lillian Brady last week to discuss the issue.
“Cobar Shire are on top of the issue, they have been testing the water regularly and are confident that the issue is discolouration of the pies and the water is in line with Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” Mr Humphries said.
“Council is working with NSW Public Works and DPI Water to scope up a program of works and a project plan and hopefully gain the support of Infrastructure NSW.
“I will continue to liaise with Lilliane and we’ll work out the best way forward. Unfortunately it won’t be a quick fix though.”
Copeton Dam’s water storage has received a red alert level warning for blue-green algae, prompting an urgent warning from authorities.
In a statement, released by Water NSW, people were urged not to undertake recreational activities where they may come into direct contact with the water.
Domestic use, including showering and washing, was also flagged as a no-go.
“Contact with the water may also pose a threat to livestock and pets. The species of blue-green algae identified are potentially toxic and may cause gastroenteritis in humans if consumed and skin and eye irritations after contact,” the statement read.
Water NSW also informed residents that boiling the water would not remove algal toxins and advised people not to use the water while the alert was in place.
“Town water supplies remain unaffected and safe to drink. Livestock owners are reminded to continue to check stock water supplies for blue-green algae and to remove stock from foreshores where surface scum is visible or blue-green algae are suspected.”
Blue-green algae usually appear as green paint-like scums on the water, near the edges, or as greenish clumps throughout the water. It makes the water appear dirty, green or discoloured and generally has a strong musty or earthy odour.
“Any fish caught should be cleaned thoroughly in uncontaminated water and any internal organs disposed of before consumption,” the statement informed.
Contact with the water may also pose a threat to livestock and pets. The species of blue-green algae identified are potentially toxic and may cause gastroenteritis in humans if consumed and skin and eye irritations after contact.
Water NSW spokesperson
Blue-green algae occur naturally and can reproduce quickly in favourable conditions where there is still or slow-flowing water, abundant sunlight and sufficient levels of nutrients.
Water NSW representatives could not predict how long the algae would remain at a high level, however regular monitoring will take place and the alert should be lifted as soon as is safe to do so.
“People who believe they may have been affected by blue-green algae are advised to seek medical advice.”
THE arrival of the New Year has brought no relief for Mannus Lake, as the lake and downstream Mannus Creek remain on red level (high) alert for blue-green algae.
The red alert was instated on December 18 after high levels of a potentially toxic species of blue-green algae were detected in the lake.
This is the second consecutive year that Mannus Lake has suffered a blue-green algae alert, and affected households remain reliant on tank water and Council’s provision of domestic water for the duration of the outbreak.
A council spokesperson said that the red alert remains in effect, and that council is continuing with water sampling and working closely with Water NSW to resolve the issue.
Other areas of the Snowy Valleys Council area have been more fortunate in having their water issues resolved.
Christmas came early for Cloverdale/Morgan’s Reserve residents, with their water boil notice lifted on December 21.
The area suffered more than two weeks of boiling their drinking water or using bottled water after very low chlorine residuals were detected in the Cloverdale Water Supply System.
The low chlorine levels posed a public health threat and sparked council to issue a water boil notice on December 4, which affected around 60 households.
A council spokesperson said that the water boil notice has now been lifted, and that the council is boosting the low chlorine residual manually and will be introducing an automated unit within the next two months. The council is also continuing with water quality monitoring and liaising with NSW Health.
A fifth of the water samples taken from taps in homes in Tamworth and Armidale as part of an ongoing state-wide study have come back with high lead contamination levels.
Macquarie University’s Paul Harvey collected samples from the northern New South Wales towns earlier this month, as part of a year-long program of testing for lead, copper, manganese and arsenic in private water supplies.
The testing program has found high levels of lead in tap water across the state, with the highest levels recorded on rural properties around Narrabri earlier this year.
Mr Harvey said some samples in Tamworth and Armidale were high.
“Of my almost 40 samples there’s about 21 per cent that I identify as having a concerning concentration of lead,” he said.
“When I say concerning that to me is between half the Guideline or anywhere from half to the Guideline or above.”
Acceptable lead levels in water are set out in the Australian Drinking Water Guideline.
Mr Harvey said the results are consistent with what he’s seen across other parts of the state.
“The other elements that I was particularly interested in – arsenic, copper and manganese – we don’t have anything in particular to take note of but certainly the lead is higher,” he said.
“This is consistent with what we’re seeing across the rest of the state where lead stands out as one of the dominant issues of the water, whereas everything else seems quite normal and fine.”
Mr Harvey will now use the results gathered across the state to prepare a report, expected in February next year.
Tests reveal concerning lead levels in drinking water
A PhD researcher has found high levels of lead and copper in the drinking water supplies of some rural properties around Narrabri.
Paul Harvey from Macquarie University said 12 per cent of the samples he collected returned a result above the guidelines for an acceptable level of lead, and 10 per cent of samples tested had a higher than acceptable level of copper.
Mr Harvey has tested water supplies across the state, and said the lead and copper levels in supplies in Narrabri are the highest.
He said it’s not reflective of a problem with the town water supply, as the properties with high levels of lead and copper collect their own drinking water.
“Those who draw from the reticulated supply actually don’t have a very high concentration, if anything at all,” Mr Harvey said.
“There’s a really clear contrast between those that collect their own water from a roof catchment or a bore compared to those who are on the town supply.”
Mr Harvey said the contamination is likely caused by the materials the water touches as it’s captured or stored.
“It’s advisable not to consume that water, perhaps consider an alternate source or a filtration mechanism until you can actually resolve the contamination source.”
A fifth of the water samples taken from taps in homes in Tamworth and Armidale as part of an ongoing state-wide study have come back with high lead contamination levels.
Macquarie University’s Paul Harvey collected samples from the northern New South Wales towns earlier this month, as part of a year-long program of testing for lead, copper, manganese and arsenic in private water supplies.
The testing program has found high levels of lead in tap water across the state, with the highest levels recorded on rural properties around Narrabri earlier this year.
Mr Harvey said some samples in Tamworth and Armidale were high.
“Of my almost 40 samples there’s about 21 per cent that I identify as having a concerning concentration of lead,” he said.
“When I say concerning that to me is between half the Guideline or anywhere from half to the Guideline or above.”
Acceptable lead levels in water are set out in the Australian Drinking Water Guideline.
Mr Harvey said the results are consistent with what he’s seen across other parts of the state.
“The other elements that I was particularly interested in – arsenic, copper and manganese – we don’t have anything in particular to take note of but certainly the lead is higher,” he said.
“This is consistent with what we’re seeing across the rest of the state where lead stands out as one of the dominant issues of the water, whereas everything else seems quite normal and fine.”
Mr Harvey will now use the results gathered across the state to prepare a report, expected in February next year.
Why does Tamworth’s water taste and smell, well … different?
Jan 20 2024: https://www.northerndailyleader.com.au/story/8503478/tap-water-taste-and-smell-tamworth-council-addresses-complaints/
If you’ve filled up a glass of water from the tap in Tamworth lately and wondered why it tastes and smells so different, there is an explanation.
In a post on social media, Tamworth Regional Council said it had received numerous complaints about the recent change in odour and taste to the Tamworth, Kootingal and Moonbi water supply.
The post goes on to say this is “due to us sourcing water from the Peel River, which has some green algae in the water”.
“The algae can cause the water to smell and taste dirty.”
The council says it is adding carbon to the water “to remove this taste and odour from the supply” and the water should be back to normal in a few days.
The post concludes that the water supply “still meets Australian Drinking Water Guidelines” and is “safe for residents to drink”.
The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines provide a basis for determining the quality of water to be supplied to consumers and are used by state and territory health departments and drinking water regulators, local health authorities and water utilities.
Lead study shows high levels in water in Tamworth and Armidale
A fifth of the water samples taken from taps in homes in Tamworth and Armidale as part of an ongoing state-wide study have come back with high lead contamination levels.
Macquarie University’s Paul Harvey collected samples from the northern New South Wales towns earlier this month, as part of a year-long program of testing for lead, copper, manganese and arsenic in private water supplies.
The testing program has found high levels of lead in tap water across the state, with the highest levels recorded on rural properties around Narrabri earlier this year.
Mr Harvey said some samples in Tamworth and Armidale were high.
“Of my almost 40 samples there’s about 21 per cent that I identify as having a concerning concentration of lead,” he said.
“When I say concerning that to me is between half the Guideline or anywhere from half to the Guideline or above.”
Acceptable lead levels in water are set out in the Australian Drinking Water Guideline.
Mr Harvey said the results are consistent with what he’s seen across other parts of the state.
“The other elements that I was particularly interested in – arsenic, copper and manganese – we don’t have anything in particular to take note of but certainly the lead is higher,” he said.
“This is consistent with what we’re seeing across the rest of the state where lead stands out as one of the dominant issues of the water, whereas everything else seems quite normal and fine.”
Mr Harvey will now use the results gathered across the state to prepare a report, expected in February next year.
Ongoing testing at Woolomin, in northern New South Wales, has revealed five bores in the town are now contaminated with hydrocarbons, following a fuel leak from tanks at the General Store earlier this month.
Three bores that previously returned positive readings for the presence of hydrocarbons remain positive, and another two bores have returned a positive reading, including a bore located at Woolomin Public School.
Council said the contaminated bores, which are located the greatest distance from the source of the leak, have the lowest levels of contamination, including the bore at the school.
The two new bores had previously been tested and returned a negative reading.
Council’s director of planning and compliance, Peter Thompson, said the water in all five bores is above the safe drinking guidelines.
He said two remediation programs were continuing today, with contractors removing the underground fuel tanks at the site and the holes backfilled.
Water would also continue to be pumped from contaminated bores in an attempt to reduce the level of contamination.
Mr Thompson said results due back early next week would determine if drawing the water out had been successful.
“We’re hoping that will reduce the contamination and in an ideal world it would remove the contamination,” he said.
“However it’s really reliant on us removing the contaminated soil as well, which started on Wednesday.
“We were taking samples as we were doing the work … it’s a number of days, the turnaround to get those samples analysed in Sydney so we’ll probably know by Tuesday.”
Mr Thompson said progress was being made but the situation was far from over.
“I don’t think the end is in sight; in part this has been about addressing the issue but it’s also still about getting information,” he said.
“I think this is a long-term issue and we’ll make decisions today about the short term and have a better idea about what the long-term solution will be.”
Funds provided to rehabilitate contaminated water supply at Woolomin
The money will fund ongoing monitoring and remediation work such as installing groundwater monitoring wells, and soil and water analysis to prevent further leaks.
Tamworth MP Kevin Anderson said the rehabilitation works were urgently needed after recent rains.
“The contamination levels started to rise again after settling,” he said.
“Before the rain it became very clear to me that we needed to get in, we needed to rehabilitate this site, remove the contaminated soil, as part of a significant pathway to allowing Woolomin to have their own water supply again.”
Mr Anderson said he had lobbied Environment Minister Mark Speakman to release funding from the NSW Environmental Trust to help with the expensive and lengthy clean-up.
He said in the end the usual ‘polluter pays’ policy was exempt from the pressing case.
“The Government will be making a claim against the insurance company on this,” Mr Anderson said.
“But given the fact that these issues tend to drag over time, I put a very strong case to the Minister that we need to move quickly on this, and I guess the Government will be pursuing the company further down the track.”
The long-awaited funding solution comes after the EPA provided $116,000 in emergency clean-up funding to Tamworth Regional Council in February.
The advice from NSW Health remains in place, which is to not drink or use the bore water in other activities, until the community has been advised otherwise.
December 2019: Uralla (NSW) Arsenic 0.04-0.05mg/L.
Highest raw water detection: 19/12/19 0.122mg/l
Arsenic: Australian Drinking Water Guideline = 0.01mg/L
Arsenic is bioaccumulative and symptoms may take 10-15 years to develop after expsoure at high levels. Drinking water can be contaminated with inorganic arsenic through wind blown dust, leaching or runoff from soil, rocks and sediment. Groundwater sources such as bores will usually have higher arsenic levels than surface water. In major Australian reticulated water supplies concentrations of arsenic range up to 0.015mg/L, with typical values less than
0.005mg/L. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/ehu/2676.pdf
New South Wales town moves to bottled water after arsenic found in water supply (Dec 18 2019)
Residents of a rural New South Wales town have been told to stop drinking its water after high levels of arsenic were detected in its water supply.
Uralla Council, in the state’s Northern Tableland region, says the level of poison that has been detected is above Australian Drinking Water Guidelines of 0.01 milligrams per litre.
The current readings in Uralla are between 0.04 and 0.05 milligrams per litre.
Arsenic can cause acute gastrointestinal and neurological issues. It has also been linked to skin discoloration and the development of several types of cancer.
The situation is so dire that boiling the water will not make it safe to drink, and bottled water
should be used for drinking, food preparing, making ice, cleaning teeth and gargling.
“Over the past couple of days there has been some elevated levels of arsenic in Uralla’s water supply,” Uralla Councillor Michael Pearce said.
“NSW Health has allocated bottled water to town. We want to let people know that the water is safe to wash, bath but don’t drink the water… we are modifying our treatment works to attempt to elevate the arsenic issue at our water works.”
Uralla Shire Council has received a number of complaints from resident who say their water is brown and tastes muddy
FED up residents have taken complaints about water quality to the modern day leveller, Facebook.
Since March 8, Uralla’s town water has poured a distinct shade of brown, and residents say the taste isn’t great either.
And, Uralla Shire Council has earned itself a big thumbs down on popular Facebook page, Thumbs Up, Thumbs Down Armidale.
Resident Kel Risk said she only drinks bottled water because of the poor quality.
“[I] can’t go back to that horrid taste,” she said.
Others commented that the water tasted like dirt, and smells bad after boiling and filtering.
They also said council had not advised residents about the issue.
The muddled water is the result of a heavy rain spell in the upper part of the Kentucky Creek catchment.
A warm dry spell that hit the area soon after resulted in increased algae in the dam.
Buckets of complaints about water turning residents pail have been received since March 8.
“These events triggered a change in the taste of Uralla’s drinking water,” the spokesman said.
“Residents are reporting this change in taste pointing in particular to an ‘earthy’ or ‘muddy’ taste.”
But, council maintains while the drop isn’t as delicious, the water is safe to drink.
Council operators have increased the dosing levels of a charcoal based product at the water treatment plant to bring the flavour back to normal.
“It appears that issues with taste are not consistent across the supply network,” the spokesman said.
“Some residents are experiencing poor taste while others are not.”
This is because pockets of water in the network need to be flushed out, and council is flushing the network to remove the remnants of dirty water.
Council asks residents to contact them directly if running the tap for five minutes doesn’t fix the problem and supply lines to the house will be flushed.
People who have had their supply line flushed should run the tap for five minutes to ensure the line has been refreshed and contact council again if this doesn’t fix the problem.
‘Do not drink’: The NSW town with no tap water for four months
Jenny Evans had been sick in bed for weeks, watching the country die outside her window. “All I could see was smoke,” she says. “Not a blade of grass in sight. No insects.” It was December, and things had been the same for months.
Then Ms Evans learnt she could no longer drink the tap water in her own house.
“It’s been like a death by cancer: a long, slow depletion of everything … and then suddenly, you get this email that says, ‘You can’t drink the water as of today,’ ” she says. “It was just so matter of fact.”
After enduring months of drought and hazardous smoke from nearby bushfires (and with “day zero” approaching), the 2743 residents of Uralla, near Armidale in the NSW Northern Tablelands, were told there was an increased level of arsenic detected in what remained of the town’s water supply, which comes from the Kentucky Dam.
At the time, local MP and NSW Agriculture Minister Adam Marshall said “the best case scenario is that residents will be on bottled water for days, the worse case scenario, weeks – this is not going to be something that is long-term”.
But Uralla is still on bottled water. Recent rain has filled the dam to capacity, but residents have been told the “do not drink” alert will be in place until at least mid-April. That will be four months in total.
In the town, people feel they’ve been kept in the dark about these delays. Many say they don’t understand what the council has been doing.
“This town is dying,” says interior designer Lisa Kelaher, who runs a small store in Uralla. “The tourism has stopped. This town doesn’t deserve this. This is about water. If we don’t have water, we can’t survive.”
Uralla residents were initially told “significant progress” had been made to reduce arsenic levels. Then the mayor, Michael Pearce, announced he was looking at getting a $500,000 carbon filtration system put in place “within the next two weeks”.
Later that week, on January 16, Uralla Shire Council’s acting manager David Aber apologised to the community and announced the “do not drink” alert would be in place for at least the next 100 days to allow for installation of “a granulated activated carbon filter” and testing.
More than a month later – two months after the original alert – Mr Marshall told local media he had not received any application for funding of the filter. “I’m as frustrated as anyone,” he said.
On Thursday, The Sun-Herald requested an interview with Mr Aber. That afternoon, he lodged a request for funding. Mr Marshall, who was also approached for an interview, announced the news on Friday, with the cost estimated at $835,000.
“It’s a huge relief that I have finally been able to present a fully-costed proposal to the Water Minister [Melinda Pavey] for consideration,” he said.
“This issue has been going on way too long to the point where it’s having a damaging impact on Uralla’s economy and the wellbeing of residents.”
It’s not uncommon for some arsenic to be found in water, but prolonged exposure to higher levels in drinking water and food can cause skin lesions and cancer. The levels of 0.04 to 0.05 milligrams a litre were up to five times the 0.01 mg/L advised by the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Residents have been able to use tap water to bathe and wash clothes. Bottled water was made available for free pick-up at local stores at a reported expense of $5000 a day to the government.
Still, many locals say confusion has reigned. One restaurant owner said that, one day after the “do not drink” alert was issued, they were told the water was fine for customers to consume in coffee and post-mix.
Mr Aber said he was advised by the state government there was no issue with consuming the levels of arsenic in a cup of coffee from the shop. “I relayed the information I’d been given at the time,” he said. “That was revoked two days later, which was unfortunate for me.”
Major businesses ended up independently hooking their coffee and post-mix systems to bottled water.
Mr Aber said the delay in applying for funding for the filter was caused by a change in plan.
“Originally we were looking at [acquiring] a bank of filters, which is like a series of pods … [then] our people worked out that it was probably better to put the granulated activated carbon directly into our filters,” he said.
“So we abandoned that idea, and then moved back to redesigning it and upgrading the filter system. It’s been quite a journey.”
Mr Aber admitted there had been “a few cranky buggers around in the background, but the patience of the community has been fantastic”. He said some residents, often older farmers, have told him they weren’t too fazed and kept drinking the town water. He occasionally drinks from the tap too.
Uralla residents now have their eyes fixed on the future. Ms Kelahar said the ordeal was proof more transparency in water management was needed, especially in drought-stricken regions.
“It’s OK to say ‘We’ve got people working on it’, but show us. Show us,” she said.
Ms Kelahar and Ms Evans pointed out there were many remote Indigenous communities that don’t have access to safe drinking water.
Ms Evans said she hoped local representatives would plan better and communicate more clearly with residents. “It’s a very big wake-up call,” she said. “And we are awake.”
2013/19 – Uralla (New South Wales) – Manganese
2013/19 – Uralla (New South Wales) – Manganese 0.49mg/L (high), av. 0.0701mg/L (mean)
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
Armidale Water Treatment Plant (WTP) has a treated water production capacity of 40 ML/d and comprises coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, monosand open gravity filtration, fluoridation and chlorination. Raw water is sourced from Malpas Dam. Characteristics of the raw water are provided in Table 1. Cyanobacterial events in Malpas Dam are common, with generally at least one bloom occurring per year. Generally the events occur between November and March, however high levels of cyanobacteria have been recorded as early as August and persisted at times until July.
During the algal blooms, contamination of the raw water source with taste and odour compounds is common, and at times algal toxins have been detected. Recently the predominant genus is Anabaena circinalis, which is capable of releasing the neurotoxin Saxitoxin. Algal counts in the order of 1.75 x 106 cells/mL of Microcystis aeruginosa and 4 x 106 cells/mL of Anabaena circinalis have been recorded. High levels of Microcystis aeruginosa in Malpas Dam in the 1980s were linked to liver damage in the Armidale community [1]. The primary taste and odour compound of concern from Malpas Dam has been geosmin, with levels as high as 1000 ng/L measured.
BLUE-green algae levels at Malpas Dam are at red alert with the dam gripped by a “bloom”.
Residents are being urged to limit their recreational use of the dam, which is Armidale’s main supply of water.
An Armidale Dumaresq Council spokeswoman said the bloom did not affect tap water.
“The water treatment process takes all of that out [of the water] so it is safe to drink,” she said. “In terms of recreational use, you can use it if you really want but it won’t be very pleasant.”
The algae may be toxic to humans so contact should be avoided.
It can cause skin and eye irritation and stomach upset if consumed without being boiled or treated.
The alerts are based on how many cells are present in a millilitre of water.
A red or high alert means there are more than 50,000 cells present.
Amber or medium is between 5000 and 50,000, and the lowest green alert is 500 to 5000.
The levels often varied and it was not unusual for blooms to occur.
“As the dam levels are lower and it has been warm we have seen the levels of blue-green algae increase,” she said.
SAMPLE DETAILS: House 3 – iron roof from outside tap – Tara, QLD, Australia
1/8/16: 0.03 mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Armidale Regional Council will flush the lines to Guyra to fix the water quality issues
ISSUES with Guyra’s water quality could be plugged with council’s plan to flush the main line.
Armidale Regional Council service leader Mark Piorkowski said a few places in Guyra have continued to experience discoloured water.
“Council teams will conduct wide-area flushing to clean out any remaining pockets of discoloured water in the distribution system,” he said.
“The town water is safe to drink but a number of households in the Guyra district have experienced periods of discolouration during the past few weeks.
“Council staff have responded to each report, with localised flushing and testing, and the wide- area flushing will avoid further occurrences.”
Some homes could temporarily experience reduced water pressure during the mains flushing, which is planned for mid to late April.
A letterbox drop will be conducted to homes in the flushing area, to advise on specific times for each neighbourhood, once dates have been confirmed.
“If your household experiences discolouration of the water after the mains have been flushed, please run your house taps until the water is clear, before using water for washing or drinking,” Mr Piorkowski said.
“Council apologises for any inconvenience residents might experience as a result of the process.
“If your water continues to be affected after running your taps, you can contact Council 24 hours a day on 1300 136 833 or lodge a service request through the Self Service menu on Council’s website.”
The monthly report for April on town water quality across the region was missing from the May meeting agenda of the Southern Downs Regional Council.
The monthly report usually appears in the Engineering Services section of the agenda, and shows if national drinking water quality standards have been met in council’s potable supplies in the preceding month, but the May agenda only contained water consumption data for the region for April.
The March water quality report showed water tested at the Warwick Water Treatment Plant (WTP) contained a level of E. coli which did not meet the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG), registering two units per 100ML, but the council says this has since been rectified and no E. coli is now present in Warwick supplies.
The advice comes as the council investigates contamination of the Leyburn town water supply which has been found to contain a low level of what the council has referred to as “pharmaceuticals”, but says the water is safe to drink.
Director of Engineering Services Peter See said the reason the April report on the health of Warwick’s town water was missing from the May agenda was “due to consensus (among councillors) that the number of reports generated was high”.
He said the April water quality report was presented to councillors in an Information Report, which are understood to be tabled at councillor briefing sessions held behind closed doors ahead of monthly meetings.
“In May, the information was split: the Recycled Water Tables and the Potable Water Table went into a Councillors Information Report and graphs went into the Monthly report in the May agenda,” Mr See said.
“E. coli is regularly tested, and it is within Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“The E .coli reading for March at Warwick WTP was brought to the attention of Queensland Health.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
LOW storage levels at Connolly Dam caused a surge of dirty, off-coloured tap water to flow through pipes across Warwick at the weekend.
Southern Downs Mayor Tracy Dobie said council staff opened a lower inlet pipe at Connolly Dam, which increased the amount of dirt and minerals entering the Warwick water treatment plant.
She said large amounts of dissolved manganese clashed with the treatment plant’s chlorination process giving the water a ‘pee’ colour.
“It poses no health risk and doesn’t smell,” Cr Dobie said.
When staff noticed the discoloured water they closed the Connolly Dam inlets, drawing water solely from Leslie Dam.
Cr Dobie said council staff will re-connect the Connolly Dam supply later this week but will bump up chlorine levels to make the water clear again.
“As the dam levels get lower the chlorination process has to become more intense because there is more dirt at the bottom of the dams.”
Most of the off-coloured water cleared the system by Saturday evening but Cr Dobie said there was still some lurking in the pipes across town.
Residents in Glennie Heights, west Warwick, Rosenthal Heights, Lyndhurst Lane, Dragon St, Percy St and Acaica Ave all reported dirty water running from their taps.
Glennie Heights mother Caroline Sinclaire said the quality of her tap water had dropped over the past month.
“It’s been on and off bad for about 2-3 weeks,” she said.
“About a week ago it smelt like dirty dam water and was brown. I have noticed the water was still brown but there was no smell.”
She had not reported the issue to the Southern Downs Regional Council but avoided drinking the water.
Maryvale water suppliers Brad and James Lucas delivered a few bottles of water to a family member’s home and saw the discoloured water stained their clothes after a wash.
They jumped online and posted a link to their business and within minutes the phone started ringing.
“We had 8-9 inquires in an hour,” Brad Lucas said.
THREE of Toowoomba’s major water landmarks have closed to water-based activities following contamination fears.
Toowoomba Regional Council has closed Lake Cooby and Lake Cressbrook to water activities with Lake Perseverance remaining closed due to high levels of cyanobacteria detected at each of the dams.
At Lake Cressbrook and Lake Perseverance, land based activities are allowed and at Lake Cooby the dam wall picnic area remains open, however Loveday Cove is closed to the public.
The council’s water portfolio leader Cr Bill Cahill said residents should expect these events to become more regular as dam levels decrease due to the ongoing dry conditions.
“Cyanobacteria represents no risk to drinking water supplies as the water treatment and disinfection process removes them.
“However, coming into contact with water that contains cyanobacteria may cause skin irritation and if consumed could lead to irritation of the oesophagus.
“Council will conduct its regular testing regime to determine when each of the dams can re-open to water activities.”
Cr Cahill said the council monitored the three dams on a weekly basis for cyanobacteria and numerous microbiological parameters including E.coli.
“We also test chemical parameters such as iron, manganese, alkalinity, hardness, ammonia, nitrate, colour, turbidity and phosphate,” he said.
“The treatment process is also closely monitored (daily). When the water leaves the treatment plant, we conduct tests in the distribution system in accordance with our Drinking Water Quality Management Plans.
“These plans line up with the Water Supply (Safety and Reliability) Act 2008.”
RESIDENTS might be shocked to smell an unpleasant odour or taste coming from their taps over the next few days, as Tweed’s water supply has been affected by blue-green algae.
The algae currently affecting the Bray Park Weir and the lack of significant rainfall in recent weeks has forced the Tweed Shire Council to release water from Clarrie Hall Dam to ensure water levels return to normal.
Bray Park Weir level drops up to 40mm further every day without rain and currently water levels sit at 230mm below the weir wall.
But council’s Manager Water and Wastewater Anthony Burnham assured residents the water is still safe to drink, despite the increasing blue-green algae.
“The smell will be most noticeable in hot water and confined spaces, such as the shower room, but remains well within the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and poses no risk to human health,” Mr Burnham said.
Anyone experiencing an unpleasant smell or taste to their drinking water is asked to contact Council on (02) 6670 2400 to assist Council to monitor the situation.
The continuing hot dry weather also has resulted in insufficient river flows to hold back a potential saltwater tidal overtopping of the weir next week.
Council will deploy the temporary concrete block barrier across the full width of the weir wall on Friday to protect against a predicted overtopping event on Tuesday and Wednesday next week, January 22 and 23 respectively.
“The predicted tide is forecast to be higher than the current water level in the weir so we will barrier off the weir wall to prevent any salt water entering the weir and contaminating our raw water supply,” Mr Burnham said.
“Once the risk passes, we will remove the temporary barrier, possibly by Friday next week.”
TWEED Shire Council has confirmed the region’s water supply remains safe to drink after Water NSW released an alert this morning warning residents to avoid showering and washing in water sourced from the Bray Park Weir.
Council water and wastewater manager Anthony Burnham said treated water from the Bray Park Weir remained safe to drink despite a red alert being issued for blue-green algae.
“Council draws water from the weir for treatment at the Bray Park Water Treatment Plant before it is distributed to our water customers and treated water from the mains supply remains perfectly safe to drink,” Mr Burnham said.
“The treatment process used at the Bray Park Plant removes the potential toxins in the raw water, together with taste and odour compounds, making the treated water perfectly safe for consumption.”
The raw water, however, is not safe to drink and is potentially harmful to people, pets and stock.
Earlier
TWEED Shire Council has issued a Red Alert level warning (high alert) for blue-green algae in the Bray Park Weir.
A Water NSW spokesperson said the the algae could be the result of water holes in the Tweed and Oxley Rivers upstream of the weir.
They said water users in these areas should apply a high level of caution and consider alternate water supplies for stock and domestic purposes.
Blue-green algae usually appear as green paint-like scums on the water, near the edges, or as greenish clumps throughout the water.
It makes the water appear dirty, green or discoloured and generally has a strong musty or earthy odour.
Blue-green algae scums have been observed in the weir and have the potential to move around in wind and currents.
A Red Alert level warning indicates that people should not undertake recreational activities where they may come into direct contact with untreated water such as swimming, as well as showering and washing.
Contact with the water may also pose a threat to pets.
Warning signs are positioned at key recreational areas and will remain in place while high levels of blue-green algae are present.
The species of blue-green algae identified are potentially toxic and may cause gastroenteritis in humans if consumed and skin and eye irritations after contact.
People are advised not to enter the water or drink untreated water while this Red Alert level warning is in place. Boiling the water does not remove algal toxins. Town water supplies remain unaffected and safe to drink.
People should not eat mussels or crayfish from Red Alert warning areas.
Any fish caught should be cleaned and washed thoroughly in uncontaminated water and any internal organs disposed of before consumption.
It is not possible to predict how long the algae will remain at high levels. Regular monitoring will continue by Tweed Shire Council and the alert will be lifted as soon as the high levels of algae dissipate.
People who believe they may have been affected by blue-green algae are advised to seek medical advice.
On the nearly 900km of the Darling River from below the Bourke weir to just above Wentworth, farmers on remote properties are dealing with a water crisis that would usually only be experienced in third world countries.
While there is some water treatment in the small towns along the river, the farmers often have no choice but to ignore the warnings about using the river water.
“It’s just wrong,” says Gabie Le Lievre, a grazier whose property adjoins the Darling between Louth and Tilpa. “Yes, we are in a terrible drought, but this is about a basic human right. I just want clean water to bathe my children.”
For months there has been a red alert for for blue-green algae in the Lower Darling as the river ceased to flow and temperatures regularly topped 45C.
The river has stopped running last August and the remaining waterholes have turned an ugly bright green.
The river has become undrinkable, unswimmable and unsuitable for bathing.
The government warnings say that, when it reaches a red alert, contact should be avoided.
“Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, are the most ancient of all photosynthetic organisms,” the NSW Water website warns. “Some produce poisons harmful to humans and possibly fatal to domestic animals and fish – neurotoxins and liver toxins, and skin allergens.
But for families that live along the Lower Darling on properties, there is often little choice, as that is the sole source of water for their homesteads, apart from very limited rain water.
Some properties have bores that can be used for stock and most have rainwater tanks. But as the drought continues, even these are running out, leading properties to truck in water from nearby towns.
Chrissy Ashby is a fifth-generation grazier on the cattle property Trevallyn, 75km downstream from Tilpa, and above the Wilcannia weir. The property has 65km of river frontage to the Darling, but these days the mighty river is just a dried up riverbed with a few stagnant pools.
She grew up here, so she’s seen droughts before. But this time the river is so low that she and her husband, Bill, are battling to survive.
There have been a couple of environmental releases that have sent a trickle down the river, but it’s now just a series of stagnant green pools. Yet that is their main water supply.
“The water stinks,” says Chrissy. “Its just terrible. It smells like rotting plants.”
Since the algal bloom alerts, she been reduced to washing off in a bucket of precious rain water.
“When we go into town or anywhere with a shower, we grab the opportunity to wash our hair,” she says.
The social isolation is compounded as well. “We are reluctant to ask people to come and stay when they would have to shower and use water,” she said.
For stock, they are using a mobile submersible pump to extract water from the bottom of the pools to avoid the algae. The pool they are using is only knee-deep, about half a kilometre long and 30 metres wide. It’s drying up too.
Some properties have sunk bores, but with the Ashbys’ finances stretched and no certainty that drilling would find water during the drought, they are scrambling for other alternatives.
Tanks have been ordered from Broken Hill, so they can get a tanker of water delivered under the drought relief program. Bill has also bought a solar power system and new piping, so they can extract water at more remote pools down the river and pump it to the homestead.
Further down the river at Tolarno, between Menindee and Pooncarie, Lauren Blunden, the wife of the manager, is in a daily struggle to ensure her seven-month son, Will, does not come in contact with river water.
“It’s been difficult and stressful,” she said. “Even before the heat came, we have been struggling to cope with the lack of water.”
With a red algae alert at Tolarno, Blunden is taking no chances. She uses rain water for Will’s baths and to wash his clothes.
She and her husband are also showering under a camp shower that uses just a few litres of rain water. They have rigged up a submersible pump and a car battery to pump water from an esky that they fill manually.
But they have now reached the bottom of the rain water tank, and last week had to truck water in from Menindee.
“It’s bore water, so it’s not the greatest water. You can’t drink it, and it’s got a funny smell to it, and tastes awful, but it helps with washing and doing dishes,” she says.
They now go to another rainwater tank with large blue water bottles to get water for Will and for drinking. The house’s plumbing is connected to river water.
“It smells unbelievable. It smells like poo and rotten eggs. You can’t fill up the sink to wash dishes because it is just so terrible,” Blunden said.
“Normally we would bathe in this water, but it’s unbearable. It dries your skin our, makes you itchy and it can cause a lot of health issues.”
A neurotoxin, BMAA, has been found in rivers in NSW that have blue green algae blooms. Studies in America have linked BMAA to a three-fold higher incidence of motor neurone disease.
Blunden says there is basic testing for algae but not detailed testing of water quality. The advice is simply don’t use it or come in contact with it.
She puts their current predicament down the the decision by the NSW government to drain the lakes twice in the last four years.
“Its crazy, because when they are full we have seven years’ supply,” she said. “It’s not fair. We are basically in third world conditions with our water. And this is Australia.
“Everyday we think about leaving. This is our home and we love it so much, but is it worth it? What if Will gets sick?”
Rural residents living outside Menindee are being asked to sign a waiver to have potable water delivered to their homes.
In summer the river water at Menindee killed millions of fish.
Now, as the drought drags on through winter, residents outside of the remote NSW town are being forced to sign a document stating they won’t sue authorities if the drinking water delivered to their homes makes them sick.
Rob McBride and his family live on the sheep property Tolarno Station on the banks of the Darling River some 50 kilometres south of Menindee.
For years the family sourced their drinking water from the river and rainwater tanks, but now they are reliant on water delivered by charities, or they buy potable water from the local council.
Central Darling Shire Council will only deliver water to Tolarno Station, however, if the McBrides sign a document guaranteeing they won’t sue the council or the state government if they become sick.
“It’s blackmail and you can’t do that,” Mr Mcbride told AAP.
“If you don’t sign that paperwork then you don’t get any water supplied to your house and your family. We’ve got a gun to our head.”
Mr McBride is worried blue-green algae in the town’s main water sources could be linked to the “soul-destroying” motor neurone disease.
Menindee’s town water, and the water delivered to nearby rural residents, is sourced by Essential Water from Lake Copi Hollow which at present has an amber alert for blue-green algae.
Central Darling Shire Council’s website says its potable water is safe to drink.
The council is responsible for carting the water to the rural residents. It says those who supply the potable water are required to provide the NSW health department with regular samples to ensure it meets Australian guidelines.
Essential Water insists the water it supplies is treated and tested to ensure it complies.
But, according to Macquarie University neuroscientist Gilles Guillemin, some cyanotoxins – which are produced by blue-green algae – are so small they can’t be filtered out.
Professor Guillemin has been working since 2012 on developing technology to help quantify the toxins and identify exactly what it is about in blue-green algae in the water that triggers MND.
“I wouldn’t drink the water, if I go there (to Menindee), I would drink bottled water,” he told AAP.
But council general manager Greg Hill says residents are only asked to sign the waiver because the potable water is delivered “into a tank we have no control over”.
The tanks on most properties previously held raw or untreated water from sources like the Darling River, which means they could be contaminated, Mr Hill told AAP.
“For this reason council asks that waiver be signed as we have no control over the maintenance and the cleanness of the storage tanks,” he said in a statement.
Retiree Dick Arnold lives “a stone’s throw” from Menindee and was also required to sign a waiver before potable water was delivered to his home.
That was the case even though he recently received a brand new water tank paid for by the state government.
“We certainly don’t drink it,” he told AAP. Instead, the water is used for washing.
Mr Arnold says he’s never been asked to sign such a document before.
“It does make you wonder what’s in the water. You can’t trust anyone these days.”
Both Mr McBride and Mr Arnold are concerned the water may contain traces of blue-green algae blooms which are also present in the Darling River and were blamed for the catastrophic mass fish kills in December and January.
“MND is a soul-destroying, debilitative and murderous disease,” Mr McBride said.
“And the government gives us a disclaimer which effectively relinquishes them of all responsibility for future generations.”
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2012/17 – Collarenebri (New South Wales) – Chlorine
2012/17: Collarenebri (New South Wales) – Chlorine 5.9mg/L (max), 0.4mg/L (average)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
April 2017 Collarenebri Filtered Water Supply
Walgett Shire Council wishes to advise the residents of Collarenebri that due to failure in the distribution system, all residents are asked to boil their tap water before drinking.
Council staff are working to identify the problem although the filtered water reservoir has been super chlorinated.
Council staff are currently flushing the water mains around the town which will be flushed for a couple of days. Regular testing of the drinking water is being carried out but Collarenebri residents are asked to take these precautions until further notice.
Testing for E.coli will be carried out on Monday, 10 April 2017 although until results are received all residents are asked to take the following precautions:
Water for consumption should be brought to a rolling boil. Water should then be allowed to cool and stored in a clean container with a lid and refrigerated. Cooled boiled or bottled water should be used for:
Drinking, cooking, washing raw foods (such as seafood or salads), making ice, pet’s drinking water, and cleaning teeth.
Dishes should be washed in hot soapy water or in a dishwasher.
Children should take bottled or cooled boiled water to school. Council wishes to apologise to the residents of Collarenebri for any inconvenience being caused during this time.
Collarenebri (NSW) – Aluminium
2012/17: Collarenebri (NSW) Aluminium 0.6mg/L (max), average 0.1mg/L
Australian Guideline: Aluminium 0.2mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2012-17 – Collarenebri (NSW) – Colour
2012-17 Collarenebri- Colour 32 HU (highest level), average 9.3 HU
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Collarenebri (New South Wales) – Total Dissolved Solids
2012/17: Collarenebri Total Dissolved Solids 652mg/L (max), 266mg/L (average)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Collarenebri (NSW) Iron
2012/17: Collarenebri (NSW) Iron 0.4mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Driving Water to Collarenebri
Chronicling the community efforts to bring water to communities left thirsty by the government along the along the Murray Darling Basin
While the urban public argue with each other over the finer points of tax cuts and negative gearing, rural NSW is really hurting. Years of drought and mismanagement of the Murray-Darling river system have left entire towns without drinking water, and many residents feeling that they have no future. Walking through these places is like something out of a horror movie – boarded up shops, tumbleweeds and dust devils blowing by, run-down weatherboard houses baking in a summer sun so hot it melts the asphalt. Local Aboriginal people face a bleak reality in which they do not have water on their own country, and grapple with what it means to culturally as well as materially depend on a land which is being destroyed. But these communities are also extraordinarily resilient, and you find inspiring characters and powerful stories of hope as often as you find anxiety. This is a small story about one community effort to respond to this crisis.
Activists from Sydney-based Aboriginal rights group FIRE (Fighting in Resistance Equally), including a number of students from Sydney Uni, have delivered water filters to the town of Collarenebri this weekend as part of an ongoing community response to the water crisis in Western New South Wales (NSW).
Collarenebri, located 750 kilometres North-West of Sydney, is a majority-Aboriginal community in the lands of the Gamilaraay/Gomeroi people. The town has been on Level Five water restrictions for a number of months because of the declining water levels in the Barwon River, from which the town’s water is supplied.
The Barwon River has not flowed for over nine months, and now consists only of a series of stagnant pools including the one behind the dam at Collarenebri. This has been a common prospect for many of the two million people who live in NSW’s Murray Darling Basin.
Local Gomeroi elder Uncle Larry Flick has been coordinating the delivery of donated water to Collarenebri, andorganised the distribution of water filters throughout the community He’s lived in the community for 64 years and while there have been periods of drought before, Larry says the river has never been this dry before. Mr Flick was born in 1954 and aside from a few years of moving around, he has lived in Collarenebri his whole life. Larry has 4 children, 22 grandchildren and 8 great grandchildren. He is a big family man who aspires to be just like his inspiration in life – his grandfather. Larry has always respected and maintained the voice of Aboriginal People within his community and since becoming the chairperson for Collarenebri’s community working party, he wants to be a voice for his region. Larry is also a member of the Land Council.
“That ‘65 drought was supposed to be a once-in-a-lifetime drought. But now that period is getting shorter and it happens every 10 years”.
The water in the weir contains very low levels of oxygen and has high levels of sediment and algae, with residents complaining of the water’s foul taste and numerous negative health impacts.
“You can’t even drink the water at home,” says local resident and Gomeroi woman Louise Sims. “You get kidney infections, bladder infections, you’ll start to get lumps on your skin.”
The majority of residents avoid drinking the water and rely on bottled water, either donated by community groups or purchased themselves. Bottled water is several times more expensive in these remote areas than in Sydney, and residents in Collarenebri are often required to travel over 100 kilometres to supermarkets in neighboring towns in order to purchase it. The water’s foul taste has led to problems with dehydration as residents either avoid drinking or substitute water with soft drinks. Given the town frequently ‘enjoys’ summer temperatures topping 45 degrees, this presents a serious problem.
Matthew, a local nurse in the community says that the past summer saw record levels of admissions to the local clinic for cases of dehydration, especially among older people. Another resident, Gomeroi woman Alison Hinch, is deeply concerned about the health impact of the water on older people in a community where Aboriginal people already have a very low life expectancy. “If our elders can’t drink the water and feel like they’re dying inside, then it’s a flow on effect throughout the community, it goes right down,” she says.
Aboriginal men in Western NSW live on average 58 years, compared to over 78 years for the wider NSW population. Uncle Larry is 64 and is the third oldest Aboriginal man in the town. Poverty, chronic stress and poor-quality diets in an environment where fresh food is very expensive are the main reasons for this.
Since January 2019, FIRE has been fundraising to deliver drinkable water to Aboriginal communities in north-west NSW affected by this crisis. The efforts originally began through the purchasing of bottled water in Sydney using donated funds.The cargo was then driven toaffected communities in volunteers’ cars.
Since then, the effort has evolved into a larger operation in collaboration with other community groups such as Dignity Water and Menindee Water Run. Water is purchased in bulk, sometimes including donations from supermarkets, and delivered by truck to communities where they are distributed by locals and FIRE volunteers. It is these methodsthat have allowed FIRE to deliver over 100,000L of water since January to affected communities. Donations have come from all over NSW, including Goulburn, the Illawarra via the local Aboriginal Medical Service, and from Canberra. Local organisations such as Dharriwaa elders group and the Walgett Local Aboriginal Land Council have also been involved in distributing donated water along with local volunteers.
During the summer, disastrous water quality levels lead to the death of over a million fish at Menindee. In the aftermath, Menindee Water Run facilitated the installation of water filters for the entire community. This medium-term solution allowed people to use the local town water, free from fear of adverse health impacts. Following this model, FIRE has decided to provide water filters for Collarenebri, another town reliant on stagnant weir water which could be filtered to an acceptable standard. Sydney University students from the Environment Collective managed to raise $5,000 to contribute to this effort.
The sad state of the rivers reflects the lack of rain throughout NSW for the last couple of years, but it is also a fundamentally political issue. Cotton irrigators have a stranglehold on water policy in the upper Murray-Darling basin. Scientists have argued that the over-allocation of water licenses to irrigators is indeed the primary instigator for the low levels of water in the Barwon, rather than being a product of the drought alone. There have been enough rain events further up the catchment with the potential to provide relief for towns such as Walgett and Collarenebri, but the water was intercepted by irrigators before it got there.
In all levels of government have been some combination of ignorant, apathetic or negligent on this issue. The local Walgett shire refuses to acknowledge the water quality issues in both that town and nearby Collarenebri, claiming that the water is generally safe to drink. This has been contradicted by water testing organised by Dharriwaa Elders group in Walgett, which found that the bore water in the town has three times the safe level of salt. This is especially problematic for a community where salt exposure is already high because of the town’s reliance on cheap, salty preserved foods.
And yet, the Bourke Shire Council inadvertently admitted the following:
“NSW Health has given advice to doctors about patients who may need special attention because of the extra sodium in the drinking water. These are pregnant women, and people with advanced kidney disease, poorly controlled high blood pressure, diagnosed heart failure and others who are on a low salt diet. Council appreciates that some people are concerned about the taste of the water. Chilling your drinking water can help reduce the salty taste. You could also add flavouring such as mint, a slice of fruit, a splash of fruit juice or low-sugar cordial or make a flavoured brewed tea, which may improve the taste.”
Water quality information for Collarenebri is not currently available, although previous alerts have been issued instructing residents to boil the town’s water supply to ensure it does not contain harmful microbes. FIRE is organising water quality testing for Collarenebri and will publicise the results when available.
The State Government has been largely silent on the issue, despite significant political upset in the Far West, culminating in a state election victory for the Shooters and Fishers Party, elected to the seat of Barwon largely on the basis of widespread outrage about the water crisis.
The Federal Government has simply suggested that the situation is a result of the drought, remaining silent in response to requests for community assistance, and investment in more reliable water infrastructure for these communities. Federal Environment Minister Melissa Price has continually refused to meet with community members about the water issue.
Water is not only fundamentally important for sustaining the health of these communities. The livelihood of the rivers is deeply implicated in other aspects of wellbeing. Rivers offer a crucial space to cool off, socialise, fish, and transmit cultural knowledge for local Aboriginal communities. Droughts are associated with declining mental wellbeing and higher rates of youth crime, especially in the punishing summer heat. This has led some local Aboriginal people to argue that the dominant water policy is essentially a form of cultural genocide, and underpins real fears about the future of these communities.
“We all grew up along the river and lived off of it — yellowbelly cod, yabbies, mussels, you name it,” says Uncle Larry Flick. “With that river dry, I really worry for my grandchildren and great-grandkids. Without that river us Murris are nothing.”
“It’s very simple,” says Uncle Larry. “If there were 20 million of us and 1 million of you, we wouldn’t treat you like this.”
While the installation of water filters provides a medium-term solution for Collarenebri residents, the water crisis remains an ongoing issue. The health of the river system shows no sign of improving under current government policy. The efforts of community activists — unionists and students hand in hand — reflect a notable instance of solidarity. Yet, they also speak to the deeply broken nature of Australia’s government.Many other communities are reliant on bore water, which contains unsafe levels of salt. This water is not suitable for filtration by household systems and these communities will continue to depend on bottled water until local infrastructure is improved.
In two weeks, FIRE will again be collaborating with Dignity Water to deliver 66,000L of clean water to the town of Bourke.
If you would like to help, you can send money to FIRE:
The outback town of Tibooburra is celebrating showering in brown water rather than green.
The brown water is coloured by just good clean silt, courtesy of a burst of desperately needed rain at the beginning of the week.
Before the falls, they were forced to draw foul water from stagnant pools on the Darling River tainted by blooms of blue-green algae — the same type of which has killed millions of far western NSW fish — to shower….
When you turn on the tap in Louth what comes out looks like something you might see in a third world country, not rural NSW.
“The water is muddy and brown and it stinks. I usually describe it as smelling like rotten eggs,”
Jasmine Kew, who lives and works at the pub in the tiny town, west of Bourne, told nine.com.au.
The water is drawn from a stagnant pool of the Darling River, which stopped flowing months ago, and where the government in December identified toxic levels of blue-green algae.
But with supplies from rainwater tanks dwindling, the town’s 35 or so residents have little choice but to shower in the stuff and wash their clothes with it.
“You just feel even dirtier than when you got in the shower. I have been getting rashes on me. I usually start itching when I get in the shower,” Ms Kew, 22, said.
“And I can’t wash my hair in the water because it is so dirty.”
At Louth’s pub, called Shindy’s Inn, bottled drinking water is trucked in and the precious rainwater is used to make ice, cook with and wash the beer glasses.
“The water is not safe to drink. I wouldn’t drink it. I tell people that stay here in our cabins not to drink it and I give them bottled water,” owner Kathy Barnes said.
Walkley Award winning photographer Jenny Evans travelled up from Sydney and stayed at Shindy’s Inn over summer in January.
“Unless you go there you can’t understand what these people are truly going through,” she said.
“My husband and I were in Louth for three or four days. When we arrived it was one of those days where it was 40-50 degrees and I said, ‘I’m just going to pop in and have a shower’.
Everyone laughed and I didn’t know why.
“But then I turned the tap on and it was disgusting. It was this putrid brown, and boiling hot.”
“I’m a city girl born and bred. I had no idea. I was really shocked. Can you imagine someone from Sydney turning on a tap and the same disgusting brown water coming out, and then getting told it may also be toxic?”
In January, the mass fish kill at Menindee near Broken Hill, which saw up to a million fish die from an algal bloom, made international headlines and put a national spotlight on the state of the once mighty Darling River.
NSW is suffering from its worst drought on record, but the state and federal governments are also facing growing claims the environmental disaster is a result of man-made water mismanagement.
Louth is just one of the small towns and vast farming properties dotted along the Lower Darling River affected by toxic algae and chronic water shortages. Here locals say their basic needs for drinking and showering water are not being met.
About 100km downstream from Louth in Tilpa, the Darling River is also bone dry.
The town gets its water pumped from a weir 5km up the river where some dregs remain.
Without rain, Tilpa locals estimate they have just two to three weeks left before their taps run dry.
Tilpa Hotel manager Sharon Mahoney may soon have no pub to run.
“Once the water supply is gone it will be all over. You can’t run a pub without water because you have got no water to flush the toilets, no showers or anything.”
In the meantime, the town water in Tilpa, which is currently on an orange alert level for blue-green algae, is not fit for human consumption, Ms Mahoney said.
“We have got three lots of filters and an ultra-red violet light that the water goes through before it comes here but it’s still cloudy as it comes out. If you run a bath it’s brown,” she said.
“No, you couldn’t drink it, it has an odour to it. I won’t even brush my teeth in it. I brush my teeth with bottled water.”
A recent trip from Tilpa to Sydney, provided a stark and almost novel comparison, Ms Mahoney said.
“We have got a son in Sydney and we were just there and it was quite strange actually just drinking the water out of the tap. We found that really weird.”
Chrissy and Bill Ashby own a third-generation cattle property Trevallyn, between Menindee and Bourke.
The property sits on 65km of river frontage, which for the past four months has been on the highest level of algae alert after the water turned a fluorescent shade of green.
For months, the couple have been drinking bottled water bought by crowdfunders.
Unable to shower using river water, the Ashbys used rainwater supplies until they became critically low. They then bought a truckload of water, with the local Central Darling Shire Council contributing the cost of the freight.
Mr Ashby said the condition of the river on his property was soul destroying.
“The water has got a real smell to it at the minute. It’s just the algae dying and fish dying in it and all of that. It’s not good.”
Everyone in the area was suffering and the provision of safe drinking and showering water should be a basic right, he said.
“I call it an essential service really. What we live off here is the river. And if there is no water left here, or the water that is left in there is disgusting and you can’t use it, then there is something seriously wrong.”
Mr Ashby said he believed things really went downhill for the Murray Darling river system in 2012, when the state government changed the water-sharing plan to allow irrigators to pump even during low-flow periods.
“You need those medium-to-low flows to continue on down the river for stock, domestic townships and for the environment,” he said.
Over the weekend, anger over the government’s water management played out at the polls in the state election.
The vast sprawling seat of Barwon, which is almost the same size of Germany, had been held by the Nationals since 1950, but was one of four NSW seats lost by the Coalition on election day.
Roy Butler, from the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party, won the seat in a massive swing and has vowed to push for the implementation of a 10-point strategy for the Murray-Darling River he has developed.
Chrissy Ashby said the election result was a direct message to the government that it needed to do better.
“I think the National Party completely underestimated the minority people out here and the voice that we could have,” Mrs Ashby said.
“The fish kill in Menindee, although it was horrendous, definitely highlighted to Australia and the world what we have been trying to voice for quite some time.”
When you turn on the tap in Louth what comes out looks like something you might see in a third world country, not rural NSW.
“The water is muddy and brown and it stinks. I usually describe it as smelling like rotten eggs,”
Jasmine Kew, who lives and works at the pub in the tiny town, west of Bourne, told nine.com.au.
The water is drawn from a stagnant pool of the Darling River, which stopped flowing months ago, and where the government in December identified toxic levels of blue-green algae.
But with supplies from rainwater tanks dwindling, the town’s 35 or so residents have little choice but to shower in the stuff and wash their clothes with it.
“You just feel even dirtier than when you got in the shower. I have been getting rashes on me. I usually start itching when I get in the shower,” Ms Kew, 22, said.
“And I can’t wash my hair in the water because it is so dirty.”
At Louth’s pub, called Shindy’s Inn, bottled drinking water is trucked in and the precious rainwater is used to make ice, cook with and wash the beer glasses.
“The water is not safe to drink. I wouldn’t drink it. I tell people that stay here in our cabins not to drink it and I give them bottled water,” owner Kathy Barnes said.
Walkley Award winning photographer Jenny Evans travelled up from Sydney and stayed at Shindy’s Inn over summer in January.
“Unless you go there you can’t understand what these people are truly going through,” she said.
“My husband and I were in Louth for three or four days. When we arrived it was one of those days where it was 40-50 degrees and I said, ‘I’m just going to pop in and have a shower’.
Everyone laughed and I didn’t know why.
“But then I turned the tap on and it was disgusting. It was this putrid brown, and boiling hot.”
“I’m a city girl born and bred. I had no idea. I was really shocked. Can you imagine someone from Sydney turning on a tap and the same disgusting brown water coming out, and then getting told it may also be toxic?”
In January, the mass fish kill at Menindee near Broken Hill, which saw up to a million fish die from an algal bloom, made international headlines and put a national spotlight on the state of the once mighty Darling River.
NSW is suffering from its worst drought on record, but the state and federal governments are also facing growing claims the environmental disaster is a result of man-made water mismanagement.
Louth is just one of the small towns and vast farming properties dotted along the Lower Darling River affected by toxic algae and chronic water shortages. Here locals say their basic needs for drinking and showering water are not being met.
About 100km downstream from Louth in Tilpa, the Darling River is also bone dry.
The town gets its water pumped from a weir 5km up the river where some dregs remain.
Without rain, Tilpa locals estimate they have just two to three weeks left before their taps run dry.
Tilpa Hotel manager Sharon Mahoney may soon have no pub to run.
“Once the water supply is gone it will be all over. You can’t run a pub without water because you have got no water to flush the toilets, no showers or anything.”
In the meantime, the town water in Tilpa, which is currently on an orange alert level for blue-green algae, is not fit for human consumption, Ms Mahoney said.
“We have got three lots of filters and an ultra-red violet light that the water goes through before it comes here but it’s still cloudy as it comes out. If you run a bath it’s brown,” she said.
“No, you couldn’t drink it, it has an odour to it. I won’t even brush my teeth in it. I brush my teeth with bottled water.”
A recent trip from Tilpa to Sydney, provided a stark and almost novel comparison, Ms Mahoney said.
“We have got a son in Sydney and we were just there and it was quite strange actually just drinking the water out of the tap. We found that really weird.”
Chrissy and Bill Ashby own a third-generation cattle property Trevallyn, between Menindee and Bourke.
The property sits on 65km of river frontage, which for the past four months has been on the highest level of algae alert after the water turned a fluorescent shade of green.
For months, the couple have been drinking bottled water bought by crowdfunders.
Unable to shower using river water, the Ashbys used rainwater supplies until they became critically low. They then bought a truckload of water, with the local Central Darling Shire Council contributing the cost of the freight.
Mr Ashby said the condition of the river on his property was soul destroying.
“The water has got a real smell to it at the minute. It’s just the algae dying and fish dying in it and all of that. It’s not good.”
Everyone in the area was suffering and the provision of safe drinking and showering water should be a basic right, he said.
“I call it an essential service really. What we live off here is the river. And if there is no water left here, or the water that is left in there is disgusting and you can’t use it, then there is something seriously wrong.”
Mr Ashby said he believed things really went downhill for the Murray Darling river system in 2012, when the state government changed the water-sharing plan to allow irrigators to pump even during low-flow periods.
“You need those medium-to-low flows to continue on down the river for stock, domestic townships and for the environment,” he said.
Over the weekend, anger over the government’s water management played out at the polls in the state election.
The vast sprawling seat of Barwon, which is almost the same size of Germany, had been held by the Nationals since 1950, but was one of four NSW seats lost by the Coalition on election day.
Roy Butler, from the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party, won the seat in a massive swing and has vowed to push for the implementation of a 10-point strategy for the Murray-Darling River he has developed.
Chrissy Ashby said the election result was a direct message to the government that it needed to do better.
“I think the National Party completely underestimated the minority people out here and the voice that we could have,” Mrs Ashby said.
“The fish kill in Menindee, although it was horrendous, definitely highlighted to Australia and the world what we have been trying to voice for quite some time.”
A groundwater bore in the town centre has been taken offline after low levels of per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances were detected during testing of the drinking water supply.
The fluorine-containing chemicals, also known as PFAS, were used in common household products and are often present in soils, surface water and groundwater in urban areas.
According to the Water Corporation, testing was undertaken in Esperance in February as part of a statewide PFAS monitoring program.
While the tests found very low levels of PFAS in three of 31 groundwater bores, the fourth bore on Hammersley Street was taken offline in March after the level reached 0.087.
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines indicate PFAS levels should not exceed 0.07 micrograms per litre.
A second test in April returned a reading of 0.13 micrograms per litre.
The Department of Water and Environmental Regulation has confirmed it is considering a number of potential sources, but there was insufficient information to determine the origin of the PFAS.
As a precaution, the department has confirmed it will begin testing private bores in the suburbs of Nulsen and Sinclair as early as next week.
The investigation area encompassed properties within a 500 metre radius of the Hammersley Street bore, bounded by Sims Street, Kalgoorlie Street, Harbour Road, Brazier Street, Jane Street, Coleman Street, Gull Street and Parsons Street.
The department’s director general Mike Rowe called on the community for assistance with its groundwater investigation to identify private bores.
“The samples will be analysed by an accredited laboratory,” Mr Rowe said.
“The results will help inform our investigation and will be shared with the bore owner/user.
“We want to ensure bore water in the area is safe for non-potable uses-like watering gardens.”
Corporation water quality manager Rachael Miller said there would be no interruption to the water supply and that the organisation would continue to monitor the town’s water supply scheme.
Department of Health Water Unit’s managing scientist Richard Theobald assured residents the Department of Health takes the quality of drinking water very seriously.
“Throughout Western Australia, there are a number of processes in place to ensure the safety of our drinking water,” he said.
“Drinking water in Esperance, supplied through the Water Corporation, is regularly tested to ensure it meets the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and is safe to drink.”
The department assured residents that the drinking water continues to be safe to drink and meets the national guidelines.
A Shire of Esperance spokesperson said the shire would not be making any comment at this time but confirmed it was currently assisting with the investigation.
In light of the findings, the Department of Health has reminded private bore owners that untested and untreated bore water should never be used for drinking, food preparation or filling swimming pools, and children should not play under bore water sprinklers.
The following information is sourced from this website:
For the past two years, Hunter Water has been working with the owners of 71 properties, which are directly connected to the Chichester Trunk Gravity Main (CTGM) north of the Dungog Water Treatment Plant.
Hunter Water has offered to provide a rainwater tank or an onsite treatment option at its own cost to ensure they have a safe drinking water solution.
These customers draw raw untreated water from the pipeline that is not suitable for drinking. Untreated water is not safe for human consumption under the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, because it can carry pathogens such as bacteria, cryptosporidium and giardia that can be harmful to human health.
The current guidelines were updated in 2011 by the Commonwealth Government’s National Health and Medical Research Council.
As recently as last month, we had a detection of giardia in the raw untreated water at the Chichester Dam outlet.
While the detection did not pose any risk to our treated drinking water, it demonstrated that there is a clear and evident health risk if untreated water is consumed.
I acknowledge that Hunter Water has not always handled this long-running issue well, and I apologise for that. Our focus now is on doing everything we can to provide a suitable solution for each customer.
We understand that some customers do not believe that drinking raw untreated water could pose a risk to their health, which is why we are working to address this public health risk. We simply cannot let the situation continue due to the health imperative.
Rainwater tanks and onsite treatment solutions are common for rural and remote properties that cannot feasibly be connected to the reticulated network, including in Hunter Water’s area of operations.
Hunter Water is funding, project managing and delivering a solution for each customer’s needs, which is beyond our Operating Licence requirements and has an estimated value of $30,000 per property, on average.
Nineteen properties now have an alternate drinking water supply in place and we are committed to working with the remaining customers on progressing a solution.
Hunter Water is funding, project managing and delivering a solution for each customer’s needs, which is beyond our Operating Licence requirements and has an estimated value of $30,000 per property, on average.
We have been listening to our customers and are working to address their concerns.
I attended two meetings with the CTGM Water Users Community Group in November 2016 and June 2017 and a public meeting in August 2017 where all were welcome.
Before these meetings Hunter Water was considering only a rainwater tank solution, but after listening to customers’ feedback, we agreed to provide an onsite treatment option where it is feasible to do so. For customers who select a rainwater tank, we will arrange for it to be filled at Hunter Water’s cost.
In the spirit of working together, we continue to engage with customers regarding the non-standard CTGM water users agreement.
As some customers expressed concerns around the wording of the agreement, we have offered to cover reasonable costs, where requested, so that they can access independent legal advice.
Yesterday I met with some of the property owners and their legal representative to discuss their concerns and find a way to move forward.
Hunter Water has heard their concerns, particularly around the maintenance costs for customers who are pursuing an onsite treatment option, and have offered to reimburse them for $1000 of their maintenance costs per annum for a period of five years.
Additionally, we have clarified that providing an alternative drinking water solution does not mean they will lose access to their current connection to the CTGM.
Hunter Water intends to continue to supply untreated water for non-potable purposes such as irrigation, farming, toilets and washing machines, providing that customers give written acknowledgement, via the agreement, that they will not use the water for drinking purposes.
Hunter Water is fully committed to working with our customers north of Dungog to deliver a solution that meets their needs.
Torres Strait Islanders believe they are being denied a basic first-world human right to clean drinking water after cryptosporidium was detected in the water supplies of three islands.
The microscopic parasite was found at levels of 2.0 (oo)cysts/10L in a sample tested by Cairns Regional Council’s Water Laboratory.
There is no set guideline value for the parasite in the Australian Drinking Water Standards, but cryptosporidiosis is an immediately reportable infectious disease.
The water test was organised privately by a Thursday Island resident in May, concerned with the lack of response by governments at all levels.
The outcome led to a boil water alert being issued, with a joint Torres Shire Council and Queensland Health statement in June citing “turbidity and a bacterial risk” in the water supplies of Thursday, Horn and Hammond Islands.
Water quality has significantly deteriorated over the past two years, according to residents.
“There’s a dirty colour to the water … people are getting sick, stomach bugs and stuff,” said Thursday Island resident Rita Kebisu.
“We seem to be going backwards into third world standards when we still need to boil our water.”
Queensland Health said Thursday Island’s hospital has seen no unusual levels of water-related illnesses.
“We all put it down to the normal virus going round, a 24-hour virus, you’ve got a bit of diarrhoea, vomiting,” said another island resident, Chi Chi Fujii.
Eight cases of cryptosporidiosis have been reported in the Torres and Cape region in 2018, up from two last year, while there were 23 cases in 2016.
Sinking costs into fixing dirty water
Bad water is also bad for business, especially when you run a cafe like Raphael Gushtaspi.
“Water filters, they’re $80 each, plus the paper filters are $26, and you’re changing them monthly,” Mr Gushtaspi said.
Normally you could get a year out of a high micron canister filter and within four months I’ve got to change it. That’s how much it clogs up now.”
He said the water crisis is also creating unacceptable workplace health and safety issues for his staff and clientele.
“Customers want water, we want water to wash up, to clean, and we don’t want to run the risk of making anyone sick,” the cafe owner said.
No quick-fix to island water upgrade
The Queensland Government has pledged $12 million in this year’s budget for a series of projects to deliver improved water quality on the islands over the next two years.
Opponents are sceptical whether that will be enough to fix issues with undersea pipelines connecting the Horn Island reservoir to Thursday and Hammond Islands.
“All of the system is going to need to be somehow flushed, this is not a small job,” said the Federal Member for Leichhardt, Warren Enstch.
Residents said they also want relief for the cost of accessing clean water during the upgrade.
“How do we manage over two years? Do we get some sort of rebate from the Council because we are buying water every day?” Ms Fujji said.
Local Government Minister Stirling Hinchcliffe said a rebate was unlikely.
“There’s no requirement to use bottled water. There are other solutions which people are advised about, on a regular basis, about boiling water,” Mr Hinchcliffe said.
“That’s not an unusual thing when these unfortunate circumstances occur.”
The ABC contacted Torres Shire Regional Council but no-one was available for comment.
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Ampilawatja – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2007/08: Ampilawatja Total Dissolved Solids 1000mg/L
2010/11: Ampilawatja Total Dissolved Solids 993mg/L
2013/14: Ampilawatja Total Dissolved Solids 987mg/L
2015/16: Ampilawatja Total Dissolved Solids 958mg/L
2016/17: Ampilatwatja Total Dissolved Solids 992mg/L
2020/21: Ampilatwatja Total Dissolved Solids 900mg/L (max), 900mg/L (av)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Ampilawatja – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2007/08: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.23mg/L
2008/09: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.18mg/L
2009/10: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.17mg/L
2010/11: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.18mg/L
2013/14: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.17mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Drinking water, infrastructure needs fixing before residents can return to flood-hit NT communities, authorities say
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-15/nt-evacuees-unable-to-return-kalkarindji-daguragu-pigeonhole/102094532 15 March 23.
Evacuees from flood-hit Northern Territory remote communities are not yet allowed to return to their homes, with authorities citing badly damaged infrastructure and a lack of safe drinking water.
The communities of Kalkarindji, Daguragu and Pigeon Hole were all inundated by fast-rising floodwaters after the Victoria River broke its banks late last month.
Hundreds of residents were evacuated by air and have been housed for up to a fortnight at Darwin’s former COVID quarantine centre in Howard Springs.
Deputy Chief Minister Nicole Manison said there remains “a very big job ahead” and declined to estimate how long it might be before people can start returning home.
“We are going through those plans about how we can get people back into their homes safely [and] as quickly as possible,” Ms Manison said.
“We know that Daguragu and Pigeon Hole, in particular, are going to need significant amounts of work.
“We are deeply concerned about the level of damage to some of those places.”
She said repairs are needed to critical infrastructure and safe drinking water is yet to be confirmed in Daguragu and Pigeon Hole.
Photos of the communities supplied by government officials show thick, dried mud caking the floors of houses, football grandstands littered with debris and a local schoolroom trashed by water damage.
Evacuees seeking timeline on when they can return home
One Kalkarindji leader and Gurindji traditional owner, Rob Roy, said that after weeks in emergency accommodation, some in the Howard Springs centre were beginning to grow restless.
“I have a lot of people asking me, ‘when are we going back? How long are we staying?'” Mr Roy said.
“They’re homesick and they are worried about their cats and dogs.”
Mr Roy said he’s optimistic many people could be home in weeks rather than months.
However, he said he understood the scale of the clean-up effort ahead.
“There’s a lot of work there to do,” he said.
“Most of the houses that have been inundated still got no power, they have got to make sure the water is alright and safe to drink.
“Our general store, what I heard, is there’s no food in there and there’s got to be a big clean up there. They’re going to have to do that job before everybody goes back.”
Residents restricted from returning home
The Buntine Highway, which connects the three communities to other major highways, was reopened this week.
But Ms Manison warned residents against attempting to make the journey home.
“We’re trying to work to make sure that only people that should be in the community are in the community,” she said.
“We’re trying to coordinate that, we’re working through that, and we’re trying to restrict as much movement in there as possible.”
An emergency declaration remains in place, which allows the government to declare access to a community closed.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Nganmarriyanga (Northern Territory) Iron
2016/17: Nganmarriyanga Iron 0.53mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Nitrate: ADWG Guideline 50mg/L. Nitrate is the product of oxygenated nitrogen created from the breakdown of organic matter; lightning strikes; inorganic pesticides; or explosives. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines recommend that nitrate levels between 50-100mg/L are a health consideration for infants less than three months, although levels up to 100mg/L can be safely consumed by adults. Mainly a problem in Northern Territory and some communities in Western Australia.
Yulara (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2003/04: Yulara pH 6.5
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.02 mg/L.”
Yuendumu (Northern Territory) – Zinc
2007/08: Yuendumu Zinc 24mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
Yuendumu – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Yuendumu Hardness 343mg/L
2008/09: Yuendumu Hardness 210mg/L
2009/10: Yuendumu Hardness 260mg/L
2010/11: Yuendumu Hardness 303mg/L
2013/14: Yuendumu Hardness 337mg/L
2015/16: Yuendumu Hardness 375mg/L
2016/17: Yuendumu Hardness 430mg/L
2021/22: Yuendumu Hardness 500mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Yuendumu – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2013/14: Yuendumu Total Dissolved Solids 725mg/L
2015/16: Yuendumu Total Dissolved Solids 773mg/L
2016/17: Yuendumu Total Dissolved Solids 822mg/L
2021/22 Yuendumu Total Dissolved Solids 940mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Yuendumu (Northern Territory) – Chloride
2015/16: Yuendumu Chloride 252mg/L
2021/22: Yuendumu Chloride 270mg/L (av.)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Yuendumu (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2010/11: Yuendumu Turbidity 6.2mg/L
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Yuendumu – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2009/10: Yuendumu Iodine 0.26mg/L
2010/11: Yuendumu Iodine 0.25mg/L
2013/14: Yuendumu Iodine 0.23mg/L
2015/16: Yuendumu Iodine 0.15mg/L
2016/17: Yuendumu Iodine 0.16mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
A trial to shore up the supply of drinking water in a remote Central Australian community will soon get underway, involving hydropanels that make water “out of thin air”.
The remote community of Yuelamu, about 300 kilometres north-west of Alice Springs, has longstanding drinking water supply issues.
Though each household now has one drinking water tap each, the Central Desert Regional Council said Yuelamu water security, like other communities in the region, was still threatened due to dwindling groundwater supplies.
Local Anmatjere man, Mack Murphy, said the water quality in the community was quite poor.
“It’s a bit salty, they have to treat the water from the main pump at the tank,” he said.
Though he was excited to see how the trial went, Mr Murphy said residents would have to wait for the results to see if it could be the solution to the community’s drinking water supply.
How does it work?
The council used a special purpose grant of about $120,000 from the Northern Territory Government to purchase the 30 hydropanels.
The panels, already in place in other parts of the country, use solar power to collect water vapour from the air, which is then mineralised and piped into a water tank ready for consumption.
Council chief executive, Diane Hood, said although she was initially sceptical about technology that claimed to make water “out of thin air” she was hopeful the trial would have positive results.
She said each panel was designed to produce 3 litres of a water a day and should function in a dry desert environment with low humidity.
“If it works it’s a different and a new solution that could really assist the communities.
Technology ‘not so far-fetched’
Australian National University’s Michael Roderick has specialised in water at the Research School of Earth Sciences.
He said, although he had not used this particular technology himself, he was familiar with how it worked and thought the concept was a good idea.
“The traditional idea is to grab the air into a container and cool the container until you get dew formed and then you collect that,” he said.
“[You then] stop-off the inlet and the outlet and then you’ve got the water trapped in there and then you can drive it off, condense it, and collect it, so it’s not so far-fetched at all.”
Professor Roderick said the water also needed to be mineralised in the process otherwise it was too pure to drink.
“Drinking pure water is not ideal for your body because the water will tend to rush into your cells, which have some salts in them,” he said.
“So basically the idea is to add some simple salts to the water, in very low concentrations, to make it similar to bodily fluids.”
Expansion dependent on results
As for whether the model could work in a larger community, Ms Hood said the council would have to wait to see the results of the trial.
But there are questions about when the trial will officially begin.
While the materials have arrived in Yuelamu, the company installing the technology is outside the NT and will need to factor in quarantine periods after crossing the border and before entering a remote community.
“I understand it’ll take about two weeks to install and get everything hooked up once we can get the contractors into town,” Ms Hood said.
“And then the trial will go over the drier winter months.”
The council will be receiving real-time data of the trial through an app that monitors the water tank levels daily.
Aboriginal community of Yuelamu fears town’s only water supply may run dry
A remote Indigenous community in Central Australia fears a bore they have been relying on may run dry, after an outbreak of toxic blue-green algae last year made its main water supply unfit to drink.
About 300 residents at Yuelamu, 300 kilometres north-west of Alice Springs, have been carrying their drinking and cooking water in jerry cans from the single tap at the bore to their homes since October last year.
They have relied on the bore since an algal bloom last year made water unfit to drink from a local dam that had been their primary water source.
Central Desert Regional Council chief executive Cathryn Hutton said the bore was now in danger of running dry.
“Unfortunately because of the additional pressure on that bore — because now it’s feeding the entire community — that bore is actually starting to look like it’s suffering,” Ms Hutton said.
“The saltiness in the bore is increasing and there is some talk about whether or not that bore is actually refilling appropriately.
“So the water situation in Yuelamu is pretty dire.”
Authorities looking for permanent solution
The NT’s Power and Water Corporation forecast the algae would dissipate in the winter months but the cooler weather has made no difference.
People can still shower and wash clothes with the algae-contaminated water but they cannot boil or filter the water to make it clean.
In a statement, Power and Water said the algal bloom had not reduced and they were still looking for a permanent solution.
“Ongoing testing has confirmed that there is no improvement in dam water quality,” the statement read.
“Power and Water is ensuring that there is adequate drinking water available for the residents of Yuelamu and acknowledges the ongoing inconvenience to residents.”
It added the Department of Local Government and Community Services was looking into potential funding options.
General manager for Power and Water’s remote regions Len Griffiths said “all options are on the table” but there would not be a quick solution to the problem.
“We’re not discounting any ideas and particularly from local people,” Mr Griffiths said.
“We’re putting a lot of effort into identifying local water sources, sources that might be up to a number of kilometres away.”
‘People are frustrated’
Ms Hutton said a long-term solution was desperately needed.
“People are incredibly frustrated,” she said.
“One of the things that I think we need to be mindful of is that this is a community that is exceedingly remote, slightly off the radar, and I think and their voices are not really being heard.
“I think one of the biggest concerns that we as a council have is that the (Northern Territory) budget for 2016/17 has been announced and there has been no allocation for any funding to solve the Yuelamu water issue.”
Minister for Essential Services Peter Chandler said he was not an expert on drilling water or maintaining water in remote communities.
“You do rely on the experts, you rely on the people who work for power and water, so we’re waiting for them to come up with that solution,” Mr Chandler said.
The Member for the local electorate of Stuart, Bess Price, has been contacted for comment.
A water quality specialist determined the algal bloom in October last year was likely caused by migrating bird life.
November 2015: Yuelamu (Northern Territory) – Cylindrospermopsis raciboorski)
Yuelamu: In November 2015, routine inspections identified the presence of high levels of blue-green algae (Cylindrospermopsis raciboorski) and associated toxins in the dam at Yuelamu. “While no toxins were detected in the community reticulation system (chlorination can destroy toxins), the severity of the bloom was such that there was risk that the community disinfection system would be overwhelmed by the algal bloom. IES immediately reviewed the options available to ensure public safety, and decided that supply of drinking water from the dam should cease. Supply of water was alternated to the Advanced Water Treatment (AWT) plant present in the community. The AWT receives the brackish groundwater that is present locally and treats it to a potable standard. The AWT in Yuelamu is not large enough to meet the combined drinking and sanitary water requirements of the community. In order to ensure people would continue to get safe drinking water, IES constructed a centralised potable water supply tank on the boundary of the water compound in Yuelamu for people to collect water from for drinking. A communication operation was also initiated to explain the problem to community members and stakeholders. The water reticulation system in the community was filled with local brackish groundwater in order to meet sanitary requirements (showers, toilet flushing etc.). During early 2016, IES undertook testing and investigation to assess the viability of various medium to long-term options to return potable water access to each building. Following assessment of options, the construction of a second drinking water reticulation system, drilling of a backup bore to improve security and improving the reliability of the AWT was the most feasible. Safe drinking water will be provided to one tap in the kitchen of each house through the new second reticulation system. The existing water reticulation system will continue to be filled with brackish groundwater for toilet flushing, showering and other purposes. The project is funded for construction in 2016-17”. Power and Water ADWQR 2015/16
Yuelamu/Mt Allan (Northern Territory) – E.coli
2009/10: Yuelamu E.coli 1 detection. 97% compliance during year
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Yuelamu/Mt Allan – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2015/16: Yuelamu Iodine 0.19mg/L
2016/17: Yuelamu Iodine 0.16mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Yuelamu/Mt Allan (Northern Territory) – Aluminium
2007/08: Yuelamu Aluminium 0.65mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Yuelamu (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08 Yuelamu Iron 1.4mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Yirrkala (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/08: Yirrkala 5.7 pH
2008/09: Yirrkala 6.1 pH
2009/10: Yirrkala 5.9 pH
2010/11: Yirrkala 5.9 pH
2013/14: Yirrkala 5.5 pH
2015/16: Yirrkala 5.4 pH
2016/17: Yirrkala 5.6 pH
2021/22: Yirrkala 6.1 pH
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2015/16: Yarralin E.coli 3 detections. 92% compliance for the year
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Yarralin – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Yarralin Hardness 383mg/L
2008/09: Yarralin Hardness 396mg/L
2009/10: Yarralin Hardness 384mg/L
2010/11: Yarralin Hardness 380mg/L
2013/14: Yarralin Hardness 367mg/L
2015/16: Yarralin Hardness 347mg/L
2016/17: Yarralin Hardness 352mg/L
2021/22: Yarralin Hardness 300mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Yarralin (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2009/10: Yarralin Turbidity 6.8NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Yarralin (Northern Territory) – Barium
2008/09: Yarralin Barium 0.7mg/L
2009/10: Yarralin Barium 1.09mg/L
2010/11: Yarralin Barium 0.96mg/L
GUIDELINE
Based on health considerations, the concentration of barium in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Barium makes up approximately 0.04 per cent of the Earth’s crust, and is the 16th most abundant nongaseous element. Barium in drinking water is primarily from natural sources. Some barium salts such as the chloride and nitrate are soluble in water; others, including the carbonate, fluoride, phosphate and sulfate, are insoluble. Barium is not considered to be an essential nutrient for humans.
Barium compounds have a wide variety of industrial applications. They are used in the plastics, rubber, electronics, steel, optical, and textile industries. They are also used in ceramic glazes and enamels, in glass and paper making, as a lubricant additive, in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and as a rodenticide. The concentration of barium in drinking water overseas is usually low, typically less than 0.02 mg/L.
Most foods contain small quantities of barium. The major dietary sources are milk, potatoes and flour. Some cereal products and nuts can contain large amounts. It has been estimated that average dietary intake is approximately 1 mg per day.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
In Australian drinking water supplies, typical concentrations of barium range from <0.002 mg/L to 1.1 mg/L.
Yarralin (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08: Yarralin Iron 0.66mg/L
2009/10: Yarralin Iron 1.79mg/L
2010/11: Yarralin Iron 0.8mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Weemol – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Weemol Hardness 398mg/L
2008/09: Weemol Hardness 366mg/L
2009/10: Weemol Hardness 352mg/L
2010/11: Weemol Hardness 358mg/L
2013/14: Weemol Hardness 347mg/L
2015/16: Weemol Hardness 353mg/L
2016/17: Weemol Hardness 350mg/L
2021/22: Weemol Hardness 400mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Warruwi (Northern Territory) – Manganese
2019/20: Warruwi (Northern Territory) 0.9mg/L
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Warruwi (Northern Territory) – Sodium
2016/17: Warruwi Sodium 193mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Warruwi (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08: Warruwi Iron 0.59mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Warruwi (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2008/09: Warruwi 4.8 pH
2008/09: Warruwi 5.8 pH
2009/10: Warruwi 5.1 pH
2010/11: Warruwi 5.3 pH
2013/14: Warruwi 5.4 pH
2015/16: Warruwi 5.3 pH
2016/17: Warruwi 4.8 pH
2021/22: Warruwi 5.6 pH
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Warruwi – Northern Territory – Hardness
2016/17: Warruwi Hardness 262mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Warruwi – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2016/17: Warruwi Total Dissolved Solids 703mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Warruwi (Northern Territory) – Chloride
2016/17: Warruwi Chloride 416mg/L
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
2006/07: Wallace Rockhole E.coli 3 samples exceeding trigger level. 93.8% of samples within trigger level
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Wallace Rockhole – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Wallace Rockhole Hardness 265mg/L
2008/09: Wallace Rockhole Hardness 265mg/L
2009/10: Wallace Rockhole Hardness 271mg/L
2010/11: Wallace Rockhole Hardness 273mg/L
2013/14: Wallace Rockhole Hardness 284mg/L
2015/16: Wallace Rockhole Hardness 289mg/L
2016/17: Wallace Rockhole Hardness 310mg/L
2021/22: Wallace Rockhole Hardness 300mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Wallace Rockhole – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2007/08: Wallace Rockhole Iodine 0.19mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Wallace Rockhole (Northern Territory) – Aluminium
2010/11: Wallace Rockhole Aluminium 0.8mg/L
2013/14: Wallace Rockhole Aluminium 0.72mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Wallace Rockhole (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2010/11: Wallace Rockhole Turbidity 36.7NTU
2013/14: Wallace Rockhole Turbidity 25.7NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
GUIDELINE
Based on health considerations, the concentration of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) in
drinking water should not exceed 0.05 mg/L. If the concentration of total chromium exceeds
this value then a separate analysis for hexavalent chromium should be undertaken.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chromium is present in the environment in the trivalent (Cr(III)) and hexavalent (Cr(VI)) states.
Trivalent chromium is the most common naturally occurring state. Most soils and rocks contain small
amounts of chromium oxide, and weathering, oxidation and bacterial action convert this insoluble
compound into soluble Cr(III) salts.
Trivalent chromium salts are used in leather tanning, manufacture of catalysts, paint pigments, fungicides,
and ceramic and glass manufacture.
Trivalent chromium is an essential trace element for humans, with food being the major source of intake.
Hexavalent chromium occurs infrequently in nature. Its presence in water is generally the result of
industrial and domestic chromium waste discharges. Hexavalent chromium compounds are used in the
metallurgical industry for chrome alloy and chrome metal production, and in the chemical industry as
oxidising agents.
Hexavalent chromium is not considered to be an essential nutrient and harmful effects due to chromium
have been attributed to this form.
Total chromium concentrations in drinking water are usually less than 0.005 mg/L although
concentrations between 0.06 mg/L to 0.12 mg/L have been reported overseas.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
In major Australian reticulated supplies concentrations of total chromium range up to 0.03 mg/L,
with typical concentrations usually less than 0.005 mg/L.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2006/07: Titjikala Ecoli. 2 samples exceeding trigger levels. 95.8% of samples within trigger level
2009/10: Titjikala E.coli 1 detection. 97% compliance during year
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Titjikala – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/09: Titjikala Hardness 239mg/L
2008/09: Titjikala Hardness 239mg/L
2009/10: Titjikala Hardness 202mg/L
2010/11: Titjikala Hardness 213mg/L
2013/14: Titjikala Hardness 221mg/L
2015/16: Titjikala Hardness 201mg/L
2016/17: Titjikala Hardness 229mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Titjikala (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2015/16: Titjikala Turbidity 6.9NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Tara – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Tara Hardness 344mg/L
2008/09: Tara Hardness 348mg/L
2009/10: Tara Hardness 326mg/L
2010/11: Tara Hardness 292mg/L
2013/14: Tara Hardness 304mg/L
2015/16: Tara Hardness 359mg/L
2016/17: Tara Hardness 316mg/L
2021/22: Tara Hardness 400mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Tara – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2007/08: Tara Total Dissolved Solids 1013mg/L
2008/09: Tara Total Dissolved Solids 1000mg/L
2010/11: Tara Total Dissolved Solids 1039mg/L
2013/14: Tara Total Dissolved Solids 1026mg/L
2015/16: Tara Total Dissolved Solids 1086mg/L
2016/17: Tara Total Dissolved Solids 1005mg/L
2021/22: Tara Total Dissolved Solids 1100mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Tara – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2007/08: Tara Iodine 0.4mg/L
2008/09: Tara Iodine 0.34mg/L
2009/10: Tara Iodine 0.32mg/L
2009/10: Tara Iodine 0.33mg/L
2013/14: Tara Iodine 0.3mg/L
2015/16: Tara Iodine 0.27mg/L
2016/17: Tara Iodine 0.27mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Tara (Northern Territory) – Chloride
2007/08: Tara Chloride 337mg/L
2008/09: Tara Chloride 355mg/L
2013/14: Tara Chloride 435mg/L
2015/16: Tara Chloride 357mg/L
2016/17: Tara Chloride 352mg/L
2021/22: Tara Chloride 352mg/L (av.)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Tara (Northern Territory) – Sodium
2007/08: Tara Sodium 221mg/L
2008/09: Tara Sodium 220mg/L
2009/10: Tara Sodium 212mg/L
2010/11: Tara Sodium 209mg/L
2013/14: Tara Sodium 214mg/L
2015/16: Tara Sodium 232mg/L
2016/17: Tara Sodium 207mg/L
2021/22: Tara Sodium 240mg/L (av.)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2006/07: Santa Teresa E.coli. 4 samples exceeding trigger level. 90.9% within trigger level
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Santa Teresa – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Santa Teresa Hardness 255mg/L
2008/09 Santa Teresa Hardness 255mg/L
2009/10: Santa Teresa Hardness 248mg/L
2010/11: Santa Teresa Hardness 249mg/L
2013/14: Santa Teresa Hardness 254mg/L
2015/16: Santa Teresa Hardness 251mg/L
2016/17: Santa Teresa Hardness 269mg/L
2021/22: Santa Teresa Hardness 300mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2006/07: Rittarangu E.coli 10 samples above trigger level. 84.4% of samples within trigger level.
21 – 23 February 2007: Rittarangu. High number of total coliforms and high number of E. coli detected throughout the reticulation system.
17 – 20 March 2007. Rittarangu. High count of E. coli from three water samples
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Rittarangu – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Rittarangu Hardness 287mg/L
2008/09: Rittarangu Hardness 291mg/L
2009/10: Rittarangu Hardness 265mg/L
2010/11: Rittarangu Hardness 282mg/L
2013/14: Rittarangu Hardness 280mg/L
2015/16: Rittarangu Hardness 281mg/L
2016/17: Rittarangu Hardness 277mg/L
2021/22: Rittarangu Hardness 300mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Ramingining (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/08: Ramingining pH 5.7
2008/09: Ramingining pH 5.9
2009/10: Ramingining pH 5.7
2010/11: Ramingining pH 5.7
2013/14: Ramingining pH 5.7
2015/16: Ramingining pH 5.7
2016/17: Ramingining pH 5.5
2021/22: Ramingining pH 5.8
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Nitrate: ADWG Guideline 50mg/L. Nitrate is the product of oxygenated nitrogen created from the breakdown of organic matter; lightning strikes; inorganic pesticides; or explosives. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines recommend that nitrate levels between 50-100mg/L are a health consideration for infants less than three months, although levels up to 100mg/L can be safely consumed by adults. Mainly a problem in Northern Territory and some communities in Western Australia. “Cue, Meekatharra, Mount Magnet, New Norcia, Sandstone, Wiluna and Yalgoo have been granted an exemption from compliance with the nitrate guideline by the Department of Health. The water supplied is harmless to adults and children over the age of 3 months of age. Carers of infants younger than three months should seek advice from the Community Health Nurse regarding the use of alternative water sources for the preparation of bottle feeds. The Water Corporation provides bottled water free of charge for this purpose.”
Pmara Jutunta (Northern Territory) Hardness
2008/09: Pmara Jutunta Hardness 211mg/L
2013/14: Pmara Jutunta Hardness 202mg/L
2015/16: Pmara Jutunta Hardness 211mg/L
2016/17: Pmara Jutunta Hardness 205mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Pmara Jutunta (Northern Territory) – Uranium
2003/4: Naturally occurring uranium concentrations above the guideline value have been identified in the drinking water supply at Ti Tree and Pmara Jutunta. The community has been informed and the Department of Health and Community Services has stated that there is no immediate threat to public health. A new groundwater supply has been developed close to Pmara Jutunta that has both uranium and total dissolved solids below guideline values. Power and Water is in the process of building a pipeline that will connect the new bore water supply to Ti Tree/Pmara Jutunta. The new borewater supply will be operational in 2004-2005.
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Peppimenarti (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08: Peppimenarti Iron 0.35mg/L
2008/09: Peppimenarti Iron 0.66mg/L
2009/10: Peppimenarti Iron 0.53mg/L
2010/11: Peppimenarti Iron 0.6mg/L
2013/14: Peppimenarti Iron 0.9mg/L
2015/16: Peppimenarti Iron 0.54mg/L
2016/17: Peppimenarti Iron 0.37mg/L
2021/22: Peppimerarti Iron 1mg/L (max), 0.4mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2013/14: Numbulwar E.coli 4 detections, 98% e.coli compliance for year
2 August 2016: Numbulwar E.coli 3 detections, 1MPN/100mL in each sample
29 November 2017: Numbulwar E.coli 1 detection. 2 MPN/100mL
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Numbulwar (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2008/09: Numbulwar Turbidity 12NTU
2009/10: Numbulwar Turbidity 12NTU
2013/14: Numbulwar Turbidity 9.4NTU
2015/16: Numbulwar Turbidity 7.7NTU
2016/17: Numbulwar Turbidity 9,4NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Numbulwar (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08: Numbulwar Iron 0.47mg/L
2008/09: Numbulwar Iron 1.1mg/L
2009/10: Numbulwar Iron 1.31mg/L
2010/11: Numbulwar Iron 1.2mg/L
2013/14: Numbulwar Iron 1.1mg/L
2015/16: Numbulwar Iron 1.18mg/L
2016/17: Numbulwar Iron 0.97mg/L
2021/22: Numbulwar Iron 1mg/L (max), 0.5mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2010/11: Ntaria E.coli 1detection during year. 97% E.coli performance during year
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2009/10: Ngukurr E.coli 1detection during year. 99% E.coli performance during year
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Ngukurr (Northern Territory) Selenium
2007/08: Ngukurr Selenium 0.01mg/L
GUIDELINE
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of selenium in drinking water should not
exceed 0.01 mg/L.
Selenium and selenium salts are widespread in the environment. Selenium is released from natural and human-made sources, with the main source being the burning of coal. Selenium is also a by-product of the processing of sulfide ores, chiefly in the copper refining industry.
The major use of selenium is in the manufacture of electronic components. It is used in several other industries, and selenium compounds are used in some insecticides, in hair shampoos as an anti-dandruff agent, and as a nutritional feed additive for poultry and livestock.
Selenium concentrations in source waters are generally very low and depend on local geochemistry, pH and the presence of iron salts. Concentrations in drinking water supplies overseas are generally below 0.01 mg/L but groundwater concentrations as high as 6 mg/L have been reported in the United States.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Ngukurr (Northern Territory) – Colour
2008/09: Ngukurr True Colour 21HU
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…”
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Ngukurr – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2007/08: Ngukurr Total Dissolved Solids 809mg/L
2010/11: Ngukurr Total Dissolved Solids 985mg/L
2013/14: Ngukurr Total Dissolved Solids 864mg/L
2015/16: Ngukurr Total Dissolved Solids 850mg/L
2016/17: Ngukurr Total Dissolved Solids 1051mg/L
2021/22: Ngukurr Total Dissolved Solids 980mg/L (max), 680mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Ngukurr (Northern Territory) – Chloride
2007/08: Ngukurr Chloride 286mg/L
2008/09: Ngukurr Chloride 343mg/L
2009/10: Ngukurr Chloride 399mg/L
2010/11: Ngukurr Chloride 398mg/L
2013/14: Ngukurr Chloride 333mg/L
2015/16: Ngukurr Chloride 330mg/L
2016/17: Ngukurr Chloride 491mg/L
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Ngukurr (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2008/09: Ngukurr Turbidity 14NTU
2009/10: Ngukurr Turbidity 5NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Ngukurr (Northern Territory) Iron
2008/09: Ngukurr Iron 0.41mg/L
2010/11: Ngukurr Iron 0.41mg/L
2016/17: Ngukurr Iron 0.4mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
GUIDELINE
Based on health considerations, the concentration of barium in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Barium makes up approximately 0.04 per cent of the Earth’s crust, and is the 16th most abundant nongaseous element. Barium in drinking water is primarily from natural sources. Some barium salts such as the chloride and nitrate are soluble in water; others, including the carbonate, fluoride, phosphate and sulfate, are insoluble. Barium is not considered to be an essential nutrient for humans.
Barium compounds have a wide variety of industrial applications. They are used in the plastics, rubber, electronics, steel, optical, and textile industries. They are also used in ceramic glazes and enamels, in glass and paper making, as a lubricant additive, in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and as a rodenticide. The concentration of barium in drinking water overseas is usually low, typically less than 0.02 mg/L.
Most foods contain small quantities of barium. The major dietary sources are milk, potatoes and flour. Some cereal products and nuts can contain large amounts. It has been estimated that average dietary intake is approximately 1 mg per day.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
In Australian drinking water supplies, typical concentrations of barium range from <0.002 mg/L to 1.1 mg/L.
2006/07: Nguiu Ecoli. 1 sample above trigger level, 98.2% of samples within trigger level
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2013/14: Robinson River E.coli 2 detections. 95% compliance during year
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Mungoobada/Robinson River (Northern Territory) – Barium
2008/09: Robinson River Barium 1.14mg/L
2009/10: Mungoobada Barium 1.1mg/L
2010/11: Mungoobada Barium 1.1mg/L
Barium: ADWG Guideline 2mg/L. Barium is a machineable metal and exists naturally only in ores containing mixtures of elements.
GUIDELINE
Based on health considerations, the concentration of barium in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Barium makes up approximately 0.04 per cent of the Earth’s crust, and is the 16th most abundant nongaseous element. Barium in drinking water is primarily from natural sources. Some barium salts such as the chloride and nitrate are soluble in water; others, including the carbonate, fluoride, phosphate and sulfate, are insoluble. Barium is not considered to be an essential nutrient for humans.
Barium compounds have a wide variety of industrial applications. They are used in the plastics, rubber, electronics, steel, optical, and textile industries. They are also used in ceramic glazes and enamels, in glass and paper making, as a lubricant additive, in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and as a rodenticide. The concentration of barium in drinking water overseas is usually low, typically less than 0.02 mg/L.
Most foods contain small quantities of barium. The major dietary sources are milk, potatoes and flour. Some cereal products and nuts can contain large amounts. It has been estimated that average dietary intake is approximately 1 mg per day.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
In Australian drinking water supplies, typical concentrations of barium range from <0.002 mg/L to 1.1 mg/L.
Mungoobada/Robinson River (Northern Territory) Hardness
2007/08: Robinson River Hardness 419mg/L
2008/09: Robinson River Hardness 547mg/L
2009/10: Mungoobada Hardness 488mg/L
2010/11: Mungoobada Hardness 495mg/L
2013/14: Robinson River Hardness 502mg/L
2015/16: Mungoobada Hardness 514mg/L
2016/17: Robinson River Hardness 524mg/L
2021/22: Robinson River Hardness 500mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Imanpa (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08: Minyerri Iron 1.08mg/L
2008/09: Minyerri Iron 1.11mg/L
2009/10: Minyerri Iron 3.31mg/L
2010/11: Minyerri Iron 2.2mg/L
2013/14: Minyerri Iron 3mg/L
2015/16: Minyerri Iron 3.52mg/L
2016/17: Minyerri Iron 0.64mg/L
2021/22: Minyerri Iron 0.6mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Minjilang/Crocker Island (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/08: Minjaling pH 4.8
2008/09: Minjaling pH 4.8
2009/10: Minjilang (Crocker Island) pH 5.1
2010/11: Minjilang (Crocker Island) pH 5.3
2013/14: Minjilang pH 5.2
2015/16: Minjilang pH 4.9
2016/17: Minjilang pH 5
2021/22: Minjilang pH 4.7
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Milyakburra/Bickerton Island (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/08: Milyakburra pH 5.4
2008/09: Milyakburra pH 5.8
2009/10: Milyakburra (Bickerton Island) pH 5.6
2010/11: Milyakburra (Bickerton Island) pH 5.6
2013/14: Milyakburra pH 5.6
2015/16: Milyakburra pH 5.5
2016/17: Milyakburra pH 5.6
2021/22: Milyakburra pH 5.5 (av.)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Milikapti (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/08: Milikapti pH 6.3
2008/09: Milikapti pH 6.2
2009/10: Milikapti pH 5.7
2010/11: Milikapti pH 5.8
2013/14: Milikapti pH 5.7
2015/16: Milikapti pH 5.5
2016/17: Milikapti pH 5.4
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Manyalalluk/Eva Valley (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/08: Manyalalluk pH 4.9
2008/09: Eva Valley pH 5.3
2009/10: Manyalalluk pH 5.1
2010/11: Manyalalluk pH 5.1
2015/16: Manyalalluk pH 5.3
2016/17: Manyalalluk pH 5.2
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Maningrida (Northern Territory) – Fluoride
2016/17: Maningrida Fluoride 1.5mg/L
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Lajamanu – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2010/11: Lajamanu Total Dissolved Solids 630mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Lajamanu – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2008/09: Lajamanu Iodine 0.19mg/L
2009/10: Lajamanu Iodine 0.18mg/L
2010/11: Lajamanu Iodine 0.17mg/L
2013/14: Lajamanu: Iodine 0.15mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
Arsenic: Australian Drinking Water Guideline = 0.01mg/L
Arsenic is bioaccumulative and symptoms may take 10-15 years to develop after expsoure at high levels. Drinking water can be contaminated with inorganic arsenic through wind blown dust, leaching or runoff from soil, rocks and sediment. Groundwater sources such as bores will usually have higher arsenic levels than surface water. In major Australian reticulated water supplies concentrations of arsenic range up to 0.015mg/L, with typical values less than
0.005mg/L. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/ehu/2676.pdf
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.017 mg/L.”
Imanpa – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Imanpa Hardness 451mg/L
2008/09: Imanpa Hardness 451mg/L
2009/10: Imanpa Hardness 418mg/L
2010/11: Imanpa Hardness 432mg/L
2013/14: Imanpa Hardness 431mg/L
2015/16: Imanpa Hardness 454mg/L
2016/17: Imanpa Hardness 510mg/L
2021/22: Imanpa Hardness 500mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Imanpa – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2007/08: Imanpa Total Dissolved Solids 1300mg/L
2008/09: Imanpa Total Dissolved Solids 1300mg/L
2010/11: Imanpa Total Dissolved Solids 1300mg/L
2013/14: Imanpa Total Dissolved Solids 1271mg/L
2015/16: Imanpa Total Dissolved Solids 1263mg/L
2016/17: Imanpa Total Dissolved Solids 1360mg/L
2021/22: Imanpa Total Dissolved Solids 1400mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Imanpa – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2007/08: Imanpa Iodine 0.61mg/L
2009/10: Imanpa Iodine 0.63mg/L
2013/14: Imanpa Iodine 0.53mg/L
2015/16: Imanpa Iodine 0.45mg/L
2016/17: Imanpa Iodine 0.3mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Imanpa (Northern Territory) – Chloride
2007/08: Imanpa Chloride 374mg/L
2010/11: Imanpa Chloride 389mg/L
2013/14: Imanpa Chloride 376mg/L
2015/16: Imanpa Chloride 380mg/L
2016/17: Imanpa Chloride 395mg/L
2021/22: Impanpa Chloride 430mg/L (av.)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Imanpa (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2010/11: Imanpa Turbidity 8.2NTU
2013/14: Imanpa Turbidity 8.6NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Imanpa (Northern Territory) Iron
2013/14: Imanpa Iron 0.64mg/L
2015/16: Imanpa Iron 0.61mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Imanpa (Northern Territory) – Sodium
2007/08: Imanpa Sodium 230mg/L
2008/09: Imanpa Sodium 230mg/L
2009/10: Imanpa Sodium 239mg/L
2013/14: Imanpa Sodium 228mg/L
2015/16: Imanpa Sodium 232mg/L
2016/17: Imanpa Sodium 254mg/L
2021/22: Imanpa Sodium 220mg/L (av.)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Sulfate occurs naturally in a number of minerals, and is used commercially in the manufacture of numerous products including chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides and insecticides.
Sulfate, including sulfuric acid, is also used in mining, pulping, and the metal and plating industries.
Barium sulfate is used as a lubricant in drilling rigs for groundwater supply.
In the water industry, aluminium sulfate (alum) is used as a flocculant in water treatment, and copper sulfate is used for the control of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in water storages.
The highest concentrations reported in drinking water overseas are from groundwater supplies where the presence of sulfate is due to natural leaching from rocks. Concentrations have been reported up to 2200 mg/L. In source waters, concentrations are typically less than 100 mg/L.
The taste threshold for sulfate is in the range 250–500 mg/L.
Under anoxic conditions, the reduction of sulfate to sulfide by sulfate-reducing bacteria can result in unpleasant taste and odour due to the release of hydrogen sulfide, and can increase corrosion in pipes.
Food is probably the major source of intake of sulfate. In areas where the concentration of sulfate in water is high, drinking water may constitute the principal source of intake.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
In major Australian reticulated supplies, sulfate concentrations range from 1 mg/L to 240 mg/L, with a typical concentration of 20 mg/L. Sulfate concentrations can vary markedly in different parts of the country.” 2011 ADWG
2006/07: Imangara E.coli 3 positive detections. 92.1% within trigger level
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Uranium (Information Sourced From 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines)
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of uranium in drinking water should not exceed 0.02 mg/L.”
Imangara (Northern Territory) Hardness
2007/08: Imangara Hardness 285mg/L
2008/09: Imangara Hardness 285mg/L
2013/14: Imangara Hardness 200mg/L
2015/16: Imangara Hardness 266mg/L
2016/17: Imangara Hardness 274mg/L
2021/22: Imangara Hardness 300mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2010/11: Ikuntji (Haasts Bluff) Ecoli. 2 detections. 94% E.coli performance for year
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Ikuntji/Haasts Bluff – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2007/08: Haasts Bluff Total Dissolved Solids 1250mg/L
2008/09: Ikuntji Total Dissolved Solids 1293mg/L
2010/11: Ikuntji Total Dissolved Solids 1275mg/L
2013/14: Ikuntji Total Dissolved Solids 1263mg/L
2015/16: Ikuntji Total Dissolved Solids 1200mg/L
2016/17: Ikuntji Total Dissolved Solids 1213mg/L
2021/22: Ikuntji Total Dissolved Solids 1200mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Ikuntji/Haasts Bluff (Victoria) – Chloride
2007/08: Haasts Bluff Chloride 343mg/L
2008/09 Ikuntji Chloride 359mg/L
2009/10: Ikuntji Chloride 372mg/L
2010/11: Ikuntji Chloride 367mg/L
2013/14: Ikuntji Chloride 371mg/L
2015/16: Ikuntji Chloride 384mg/L
2016/17: Ikuntji Chloride 387mg/L
2021/22: Ikuntji Chloride 360mg/L
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sulfate in drinking water
should not exceed 250 mg/L. Purgative effects may occur if the concentration exceeds 500 mg/L.
Sulfate occurs naturally in a number of minerals, and is used commercially in the manufacture of numerous products including chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides and insecticides. Sulfate, including sulfuric acid, is also used in mining, pulping, and the metal and plating industries. Barium sulfate is used as a lubricant in drilling rigs for groundwater supply.
In the water industry, aluminium sulfate (alum) is used as a flocculant in water treatment, and copper sulfate is used for the control of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in water storages.
The highest concentrations reported in drinking water overseas are from groundwater supplies where the presence of sulfate is due to natural leaching from rocks. Concentrations have been reported up to 2200 mg/L. In source waters, concentrations are typically less than 100 mg/L.
The taste threshold for sulfate is in the range 250–500 mg/L.” ADWG 2011
2015/16: Gunyangara E.coli 1 detection. 97% compliance during year
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Gunyangara (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/8: Gunyangara pH 6.1
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2006/07: The susceptibility of Gunbalanya’s source waters to microbiological contamination is relatively high due to the shallow depth of the bores, seasonal recharge of the groundwater, the accessibility of the weir to animals and the monsoon activity that regularly floods the borefield. Heavy monsoonal rains led to flooding in Gunbalanya in late February 2007, which inundated sewage pump stations and the borefield. Consequently a Boil Water Alert was issued although analysis of the water samples did not detect E. coli. Gunbalanya currently has a sodium hypochlorite system in place and additional UV disinfection is proposed as part of the Strategy for Safe Water in 2007-08.
2009/10: 99% Gunbalunya E.coli performance over year
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Gunbalunya (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2015/16: Gunbalunya Turbidity 6.1NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Gunbalunya (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08: Gunbalunya Iron 0.8mg/L
2015/16: Gunbalunya Iron 0.4mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Gunbalunya (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/08: Gunbalunya pH 5.9
2008/09: Gunbalunya pH 6
2009/10: Gunbalunya pH 5.9
2010/11: Gunbalunya pH 5.9
2013/14: Gunbalunya pH 5.8
2015/16: Gunbalunya pH 5.6
2016/17: Gunbalunya pH 5.7
2021/22: Gunbalunya pH 5.4
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Engawala/Alcoota (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2007/08: Engawala Iodine 0.22mg/L
2008/09 Engawala Iodine 0.15mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Engawala/Alcoota (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2009/10: Engawala Turbidity 13.2NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2010/11: Jilkminngin. 1 ecoli detection. 98% E.coli performance over year
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Jilkminngin – Northern Territory – Hardness
2007/08: Djilkminngin Hardness 598mgL
2008/09: Djilkminngin Hardness 645mg/L
2009/10: Jilkminngan Hardness 571mg/L
2010/11: Jilkminngan Hardness 578mg/L
2013/14: Jilkminngan Hardness 573mg/L
2015/16: Jilkminngan Hardness 559mg/L
2016/17: Jilkminngan Hardness 573mg/L
2021/22: Jilkminngan Hardness 800mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Djilkminngin – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2008/09: Djilkminngin Total Dissolved Solids 1350mg/L
2010/11: Jilkminngan Total Dissolved Solids 1270mg/L
2013/14: Jilkminngan Total Dissolved Solids 1327mg/L
2015/16: Jilkminngan Total Dissolved Solids 1475mg/L
2016/17: Jilkminngan Total Dissolved Solids 1100mg/L
2021/22: Jilkminngan Total Dissolved Solids 1300mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Djilkminngin – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2008/09: Djilkminngin Iodine 0.22mg/L
2010/11: Jilkminngan Iodine 0.19mg/L
2013/14: Jilkminngan Iodine 0.18mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Djilkminngin (Northern Territory) – Chloride
2007/08: Djikminngin Chloride 301mg/L
2008/09: Djilkminngin Chloride 275mg/L
2009/10: Jilkminngan Chloride 252mg/L
2010/11: Jilkminngan Chloride 255mg/L
2013/14: Jilkminngan Chloride 283mg/L
2015/16: Jilkminngan Chloride 355mg/L
2021/22: Jilkminngan Chloride 290mg/L (av.)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Jilkminngan (Northern Territory) Iron
2015/16: Jilkminngan Iron 0.46mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Jilkminngan (Northern Territory) – Sodium
2009/10: Jilkminngan Sodium 188mg/L
2010/11: Jilkminngan Sodium 196mg/L
2013/14: Jilkminngan Sodium 217mg/L
2015/16: Jilkminngan Sodium 277mg/L
2021/22: Jilkminngan Sodium 200mg/L (av.)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2006/07: Canteen Creek E. coli <1 in 98% of samples 1 exceedance 97.7% samples passing trigger level
6/12/16: Canteen Creek E.coli 1 detection. 1 MPN/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2021/22: Canteen Creek Hardness 300mg/L (max), 300mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Drinking water, infrastructure needs fixing before residents can return to flood-hit NT communities, authorities say
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-15/nt-evacuees-unable-to-return-kalkarindji-daguragu-pigeonhole/102094532 15 March 23.
Evacuees from flood-hit Northern Territory remote communities are not yet allowed to return to their homes, with authorities citing badly damaged infrastructure and a lack of safe drinking water.
The communities of Kalkarindji, Daguragu and Pigeon Hole were all inundated by fast-rising floodwaters after the Victoria River broke its banks late last month.
Hundreds of residents were evacuated by air and have been housed for up to a fortnight at Darwin’s former COVID quarantine centre in Howard Springs.
Deputy Chief Minister Nicole Manison said there remains “a very big job ahead” and declined to estimate how long it might be before people can start returning home.
“We are going through those plans about how we can get people back into their homes safely [and] as quickly as possible,” Ms Manison said.
“We know that Daguragu and Pigeon Hole, in particular, are going to need significant amounts of work.
“We are deeply concerned about the level of damage to some of those places.”
She said repairs are needed to critical infrastructure and safe drinking water is yet to be confirmed in Daguragu and Pigeon Hole.
Photos of the communities supplied by government officials show thick, dried mud caking the floors of houses, football grandstands littered with debris and a local schoolroom trashed by water damage.
Evacuees seeking timeline on when they can return home
One Kalkarindji leader and Gurindji traditional owner, Rob Roy, said that after weeks in emergency accommodation, some in the Howard Springs centre were beginning to grow restless.
“I have a lot of people asking me, ‘when are we going back? How long are we staying?'” Mr Roy said.
“They’re homesick and they are worried about their cats and dogs.”
Mr Roy said he’s optimistic many people could be home in weeks rather than months.
However, he said he understood the scale of the clean-up effort ahead.
“There’s a lot of work there to do,” he said.
“Most of the houses that have been inundated still got no power, they have got to make sure the water is alright and safe to drink.
“Our general store, what I heard, is there’s no food in there and there’s got to be a big clean up there. They’re going to have to do that job before everybody goes back.”
Residents restricted from returning home
The Buntine Highway, which connects the three communities to other major highways, was reopened this week.
But Ms Manison warned residents against attempting to make the journey home.
“We’re trying to work to make sure that only people that should be in the community are in the community,” she said.
“We’re trying to coordinate that, we’re working through that, and we’re trying to restrict as much movement in there as possible.”
An emergency declaration remains in place, which allows the government to declare access to a community closed.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Bunbidee/Pigeon Hole (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08: Bunbidee/Pigeon Hole Iron 0.41mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2013/14: Barunga E.coli. 1 detection. 98% compliance during year
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Barunga (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2015/16: Barunga Turbidity 5.7NTU
2020/21: Barunga Turbidity 5.7NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Barunga (Northern Territory) Iron
2007/08: Barunga Iron 0.5mg/L
2008/09: Barunga Iron 0.76mg/L
2009/10: Barunga Iron 0.31mg/L
2013/14: Barunga Iron 0.6mg/L
2015/16: Barunga Iron 1.08mg/L
2016/17: Barunga Iron 0.68mg/L
2021/22: Barunga Iron 0.8mg/L (max), 0.4mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Barunga (Northern Territory) – Colour
2015/16: Barunga Colour 25.6HU
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Barunga (Northern Territory) – pH (acidic)
2007/08: Barunga pH 5.4
2016/17: Barunga pH 6.3
2021/22: Barunga pH 5.6
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Atitjere (NT) Total Dissolved Solids
Atitjere (NT) Total Dissolved Solids 700mg/L (max), 700mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2006/07: Mt Leibig E.coli 1 samples exceeding trigger level. 97% of samples within trigger level
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Amunturangu (Mt Leibig) – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2016/17: Amunturangu/Mt Leibig (Northern Territory) Total Dissolved Solids 649mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Ampilawatja – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2007/08: Ampilawatja Total Dissolved Solids 1000mg/L
2010/11: Ampilawatja Total Dissolved Solids 993mg/L
2013/14: Ampilawatja Total Dissolved Solids 987mg/L
2015/16: Ampilawatja Total Dissolved Solids 958mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Ampilawatja – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2007/08: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.23mg/L
2008/09: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.18mg/L
2009/10: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.17mg/L
2010/11: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.18mg/L
2013/14: Ampilawatja Iodine 0.17mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
2014/15: Amoonguna (Northern Territory) – Lead 0.008mg/L (av.)
2016/17: Amoonguna (Northern Territory) – Lead 0.007mg/L (95th %)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Amoonguna (Northern Territory) Hardness
2015/16: Amoonguna Hardness 207mg/L
2006/17: Amoonguna Hardness 229mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Amoonguna (Northern Territory) – Turbidity
2016/17: Amoonguna Turbidity 6.7NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2016/17 – Amanbidji (Northern Territory) – Lead 0.01mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Amanbidji (Northern Territory) Hardness
2007/08: Amanbidji Hardness 379mg/L
2008/09: Amanbidji Hardness 405mg/L
2009/10: Amanbidji Hardness 381mg/L
2010/11: Amanbidji Hardness 381mg/L
2013/14: Amanbidji Hardness 373mg/L
2015/16: Amanbidji Hardness 373mg/L
2016/17: Amanbidji Hardness 400mg/L
2020/21: Amanbidji Hardness 400mg/L
2021/22: Amanbidji Hardness 400mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Amanbidji (Northern Territory) Total Dissolved Solids
2007/08: Amanbidji Total Dissolved Solids 1133mg/L
2008/09: Amanbidji Total Dissolved Solids 1003mg/L
2010/11 Amanbidji Total Dissolved Solids 917mg/L
2013/14: Amanbidji Total Dissolved Solids 885mg/L
2016/17: Amanbidji Total Dissolved Solids 843mg/L
2020/21: Amanbidji Total Dissolved Solids 900mg/L (max), 900mg/L (av.)
2021/22: Amanbidji Total Dissolved Solids 800mg/L (max), 790mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Amanbidji (Northern Territory) – Sulfate
2007/08: Amanbidji Sulfate 291mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sulfate in drinking water
should not exceed 250 mg/L. Purgative effects may occur if the concentration exceeds 500 mg/L.
Sulfate occurs naturally in a number of minerals, and is used commercially in the manufacture of numerous products including chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides and insecticides. Sulfate, including sulfuric acid, is also used in mining, pulping, and the metal and plating industries. Barium sulfate is used as a lubricant in drilling rigs for groundwater supply.
In the water industry, aluminium sulfate (alum) is used as a flocculant in water treatment, and copper sulfate is used for the control of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in water storages.
The highest concentrations reported in drinking water overseas are from groundwater supplies where the presence of sulfate is due to natural leaching from rocks. Concentrations have been reported up to 2200 mg/L. In source waters, concentrations are typically less than 100 mg/L.
The taste threshold for sulfate is in the range 250–500 mg/L.” ADWG 2011
Northern Territory community’s clean water struggle opens eyes on billion dollar issue facing Aboriginal communities
National Indigenous Times November 8 2022
Jackie Mahoney and Pam Corbett’s retelling of their long battle for clean drinking water brought the devastating reality for many remote Indigenous communities to the spotlight at Parliament House on Monday.
For years the pair have open their own wallets for what is a given to most but seemingly out of reach in their home of Alpurrurulam on the Queensland-Northern Territory border.
Speaking at the Water Services Association of Australia’s Closing the Water for People and Communities Gap report launch their struggle gave voice to a troubling truth.
Federal Indigenous Australians Minister Linda Burney went one step further.
“Most of you in this room get up in the morning put on the jug and make a cup of tea or coffee,” she said.
“Most of us when we go to bed in the evening get a glass of water and sit it beside our bed and don’t think twice about it.
“In many parts of remote Australia those things are just not possible.
“I’ve been to remote communities where it is cheaper to buy a bottle of coke than a bottle of water. It is not right.”
Ms Burney made reference to barriers this places on dialysis treatment across Indigenous communities.
Both delegates of the Territory’s Central Land Council, Mr Mahoney and Ms Corbett spoke alongside council staff to paint a dire picture of water injustice.
The ongoing impact of colonisation, displacement and dispossession continues in many senses in Alpurrurulam.
In the 1970’s an ultimately unsuccessful lease proposal to an American pastoral company failed to push the local Alyawarre people off country.
It did however succeed in severing their access and cultural connection to the Georgina River.
As the threat of displacement went away so did a crucial resource.
Clean water continues to be used for cattle production locals now rely on bore water.
It causing itchiness, stomach sickness and potential for a variety of health impacts due to heavy treatment, unsuitable for showering let alone drinking.
Excess fluoride is a major concern.
“The bore water tastes funny,” Ms Corbett said.
“It’s hard to shower with.”
According to Mr Mahoney Government staff and health services bring their own water when visiting.
The CLC and local community have continuously fought for adequate infrastructure and funding with limited success.
In the past decade residents have poured almost $150,000 of their own money into desperate efforts to bring clean water to the area.
“It’s Aboriginal money for essential services that we all take for granted,” CLC senior policy officer Georgia Stewart said.
A successful bid from the land council to the Government’s Aboriginal Benefits Account 2020 brought $4 million in funding toward new borefield within existing pastoral leases.
Despite being significant step forward it fell short of the money ultimately required.
It follows 10 years of cooperation with native title holders and pastoralists among a number of unsuccessful funding applications from the CLC and community funded Power and Water Corporation to Northern Territory government departments.
CLC, Power and Water Corporation and the National Indigenous Australians Agency are in negotiations to overcome the remaining amount needed for the borefield.
As of October 2022 Power and Water are seeking to obtain $1 million from the NT Government’s Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Logistics and approval from NT Housing.
The WSAA report included the current state of Alpurrurulam as a case study.
Wider investigation consulted over 170 stakeholders over 18 months.
It found a minimum of $2.2 billion is needed to address water injustice in Indigenous communities across the country and “more when you include replacing old pipes and plumbing,” according to WSAA executive director Adam Lovell.
Formalisation of drinking water guidelines across all states and territories, increased water quality monitoring, technology investment to combat climate change threats and stronger First Nations decision making in services received were recommended fro the report.
“All levels of government, service providers, industry and researchers have role to play in tackling the innate complexities of this field, and congratulations (for WSAA) for being part of that collaboration,” Minster Burney said.
“This is an issue that should not exist in a first world nation like Australia, and it’s within our capacity to fix it.”
Almost 200,000 Australians don’t have safe drinking water, new report finds
Almost 200,000 Australians are often forced to drink water containing unsafe levels of uranium, arsenic, nitrates, fluoride and E. coli, according to water researchers.
A further 400,000 people across Australia regularly drink water that fails aesthetic standards.
Researchers from the Australian National University discovered unsafe drinking water in 115 locations, while hundreds more had water that did not meet acceptable aesthetic benchmarks.
Towns and communities in the Northern Territory, South Australia, Queensland and Western Australia returned the worst water quality results, with remote Indigenous communities found to be the most affected by unsafe drinking water.
Jackie Mahoney and Pam Corbett, who live in Alpurrurulam, 500 kilometres north-east of Alice Springs on the NT-Queensland border, say poor water quality causes a wide range of illnesses and problems.
“It makes you itchy … and causes kidney problems and makes you sick in the stomach,” Mr Mahoney said.
“People with sensitive skin were treated for scabies, but it wasn’t scabies. Children’s scalps were dry and itching, and lots of calcium on the taps and clogged pipes caused problems.”
The community recently installed a filtration system which, they said, had helped to improve the water quality, but it did not remove everything and many people still suffered health issues because they had been forced to drinkpoor quality water for years.
“Before that it was worse,” Ms Corbett said.
“We didn’t know we were drinking no-good water. It made our stomach sick, and … our kids.”
Ms Corbett said she and her partner had approached governments, the Central Land Council and other funding bodies for a new water bore for the community but progress had been slow.
“I’m worried because of our kids, their future, the next generation. We need to fix this. We need new water soon, ASAP,” Mr Mahoney said.
“It’s our homeland. We’re there for life and we should have good water.”
600,000 rely on poor quality drinking water
The ANU research has been included in a report from the Water Services Association of Australia which shows 115 locations across remote Australia exceeded safe guidelines at least once in 2018-19, while 408 locations did not meet aesthetic standards, affecting more than 600,000 people.
More than 40 per cent of all locations surveyed were remote Indigenous communities, the report said.
But association executive director Adam Lovell said the number of locations and breaches of the guidelines actually could be much higher because there was not enough testing being done.
“There’s hardly any data to understand what the water quality looks like,” he said.
“When we talk about closing the gap, we don’t know what that gap actually looks like right now.”
Unacceptably high levels of elements like uranium or arsenic could result in long-term chronic health issues, Mr Lovell said, but the most common risk was E. coli.
“It’s immediate. If a water supply is not being disinfected properly then there’ll be gastrointestinal problems in the house,” he said.
“Over the longer term you’ll see that the chemical impacts build up and build up and build up and they’re the chronic impacts, which are much harder to see immediately and then much harder to treat.”
‘Blame shifting’ over water quality
Mr Lovell said in Australia’s major cities there were usually hundreds of water samples taken a day, testing for microbial contaminants like E. coli and chemicals.
“Australian drinking water guidelines should be preferably legislated and regulated across all states and territories, which currently it is not,” he said.
Report author Eric Vanweydeveld said there were too many government departments and other organisations involved in service provision for remote communities, which led to blame shifting and inaction.
“If there is a water leak in the street, and you are a member of a remote community and you try to understand ‘who do I need to talk to to fix this leak?’, you will deal with probably seven or 10 different departments,” he said.
The report has recommended that the federal government spend $30 million to establish a national water monitoring program.
“That will help us understand what closing the gap looks like,” Mr Lovell said.
Steven Porter, from the Northern Territory Power and Water Corporation, said it had been working with the Central Land Council to secure $5.2 million from the National Indigenous Australians Agency to bring two new bores online but there was still a $1 million shortfall.
“In doing that we can access better sources of water and improve the quality of water for the local community,” he said.
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Alpurrurulam – Northern Territory – Total Dissolved Solids
2007/08: Alpurruralam Total Dissolved Solids 908mg/L
2010/11: Alpurrurulam Total Dissolved Solids 924mg/L
2013/14: Alpurrurulam Total Dissolved Solids 921mg/L
2015/16: Alpurrurulam Total Dissolved Solids 902mg/L
2016/17: Alpurruralam Total Dissolved Solids 887mg/L
2020/21: Alpurruralam Total Dissolved Solids 1000mg/L (max), 900mg/L (av.)
2021/22: Alpurruralam Total Dissolved Solids 960mg/L (max), 920mg/L (av.)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Alpurrurulam – (Northern Territory) – Iodine
2007/08: Alpurrurulum Iodine 0.2mg/L
2008/09: Alpurrurulum Iodine 0.175mg/L
2009/10: Alpurrurulam Iodine 0.17mg/L
2010/11: Alpurrurulam Iodine 0.18mg/L
2013/14: Alpurrurulam Iodine 0.16mg/L
GUIDELINE
Iodide: Based on health considerations, the concentration of iodide in drinking water should
not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
Iodine: No guideline value has been set for molecular iodine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The element iodine is present naturally in seawater, nitrate minerals and seaweed, mostly in the form of iodide salts. It may be present in water due to leaching from salt and mineral deposits. Iodide can be oxidised to molecular iodine with strong disinfectants such as chlorine.
Molecular iodine solutions are used as antiseptics and as sanitising agents in hospitals and laboratories.
Iodine is occasionally used for the emergency disinfection of water for field use but is not used for disinfecting larger drinking water supplies. Iodide is used in pharmaceutical and photographic materials. Iodine has a taste threshold in water of about 0.15 mg/L.
Iodide occurs in cows’ milk and seafood. Some countries add iodide to table salt to compensate for iodide-deficient diets.
Regional communities are being advised to chlorinate their house water after a third child death from a “brain-eating parasite”.
Key points:
Water-borne parasite kills three children in north-west Queensland
Mother suspects her toddler infected while playing in backyard sprinkler
Infection can occur when untreated water enters the brain via the nose
Queensland Government launches awareness campaign in regional and rural communities
The amoeba, Naegleria fowleri, thrives in warm fresh water across large parts of inland Australia.
While authorities say infection is very rare, medics warn survival is even rarer.
“It causes catastrophic meningitis encephalitis, and by the time these kids are diagnosed the treatments are usually ineffective,” public health physician Dr Steven Donohue said.
“We think that probably 98 per cent of cases die even in the best of hands, even in the most modern intensive care units.”
One-year-old Cash Keough, from Judith Royl station in north-west Queensland, died in April this year.
While his parents are yet to come to terms with their loss they felt compelled to share their experience on Australian Story, in a bid to warn other families of the potential dangers.
“We owe it to him to let people know,” Cash’s father Laine Keough said.
“You don’t want this to happen to another family.”
The toddler’s mother, Jodi Keough, suspects he was infected while playing with a garden hose filled with untreated water.
“That day always stands out in my mind because I insisted all three of my kids have a hose each to play with, thinking I was being a good mum,” Ms Keough said.
“But I was actually putting my kids in some form of danger.”
Cash is the third child to die in the Winton-Richmond area — half-way between Townsville and Mount Isa — in Queensland.
“One is a fluke; two, that’s a coincidence,” Dr Donohue said.
“But three? That’s when you really start thinking, what’s going on here?”
His mother said she believed a sprinkler on their homestead, 100 kilometres from the Keough’s property, was the source of infection.
“It started with a bit of a fever. The next day he was unresponsive,” James’ mother Margie Elliott said.
It was not until James’ half-sister, 19-month-old Anabella Elliott, died eight years later, having bathed in untreated water on the same property, that doctors could conclude the cause was Naegleria fowleri.
“When Anabella got sick, I think I went into denial and I sort of shut down on a lot of it,” Gerald Elliott, James and Anabella’s father, said.
“I just knew it was the place of dread, it’s the place of horror.
“You accept you’ve got to bury your parents, but to bury your child is a place that no-one wants to be.”
Naegleria fowleri was first identified in South Australia in the 1960s and has since caused 300 known deaths worldwide, mostly youth and children.
It is not only communities from north-west Queensland at risk.
The amoeba thrives in water temperatures above 25 degrees Celsius and has been discovered in lakes, creeks, dams, bores and rain water tanks across the country.
Authorities stress infection from Naegleria fowleri cannot occur from drinking, cooking or washing clothes in the water.
The danger arises when contaminated water enters the nose.
“It gets into the brain through the nose and it’s usually a form of pressured water, from jumping into water or having water sprayed into your nose,” paediatric intensivist Dr Greg Wiseman said.
Clinical microbiologist Dr Robert Norton said: “On the inside there is a very thin sliver of bone that separates the outside brain from the surface, and in children this bone is underdeveloped.
“And for some reason the Naegleria tends to pass through this.
“We get children like the way Cash came in literally every day.
“Children coming in with fevers, seizures and confusion and it could be one of about 20 things, so we start at the top and work our way down.
“In order to make the diagnosis you have to get fluid from around the brain and sadly, even when the diagnosis is made early, treatment is very rarely effective.”
The facts: Naegleria fowleri
Naegleria fowleri was first identified in South Australia in the 1960s
There are at least 300 known deaths from the parasite around the world, 25 in Australia
Figures are believed to be much higher as it is very difficult to diagnose
The amoeba exists in fresh, warm water over 25 degrees Celsius
The amoeba gets into the brain when water enters the nose
The disease most commonly strikes children because of an under-developed sliver of bone at the top of the nasal passage
While the likelihood of infection had once been considered extremely rare, authorities now suspect the death rate could be much higher considering diagnosis is so difficult.
“Nobody’s keeping records. It’s not a nationally notifiable disease and we also know perhaps the majority of cases are missed,” Dr Donohue said.
The Queensland Government has launched an awareness campaign, with health officials travelling across the state to educate both doctors and families in regional communities.
With no proven cure, the message will focus on prevention.
“I think people should start to think about disinfecting the water and filtering it, particularly in the water that kids are playing and washing in,” Dr Donohue said.
“We’ll reduce the risk, but we won’t get rid of it.”
Doctors warn of another group at risk — young adults — who often dive into dams and rivers.
“People should take care when putting their head underwater if it’s untreated water,” Dr Donohue said.
“If they dive in they really should hold their nose.
“But these activities and behaviours are very hard for us to have much impact on.
“At least with young children parents can have some control over what water they come in contact with.
Unfortunately the advice comes too late for the Keough and Elliott families.
“The whole set-up for our homestead, with 12 months’ worth of filters, was about $3,500,” Mr Keough said.
“And when you put it like that, to a little boy’s or to anyone’s life, for $3,500 it could have changed a lot.
“We had one wonderful year of Cash in our lives which brought much joy and happiness and now I believe we will have a lifetime of sadness not having him in our life,” Ms Keough says.
“I do feel like it’s up to me to try and prevent our nightmare becoming someone else’s reality.”
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2020: Yarrawonga (Victoria) – Taste & Odour
Murray River Taste and Odour Event
Some towns in North East Water’s region supplied from the Murray system were affected by a taste and odour event from Australia Day in January through to March 2020. The taste and odour event was caused by naturally occurring taste and odour compound known as geosmin. This organic compound has a very strong, earthy taste and odour that is unpleasant. The compound can be produced by blue-green algae, bacteria and sometimes protozoa, and can be smelled at very low concentrations (around 10 ng/L). The compounds are generally present in drinking water but below noticeable levels. Geosmin can cause objectionable taste and odour in drinking water, but is an aesthetic issue only, with the water remaining safe to drink. In late January 2020, an algae bloom occurred in Lake Hume that produced extremely high concentrations of geosmin. The dominant algae species was Dolichospermum c.f. crassum, a known geosmin producer. This bloom subsequently spread downstream to Wodonga, Wahgunyah and Yarrawonga offtakes. This taste and odour event eventually spread much further down the Murray River and affected water utilities on both sides of the Victorian and NSW border.
Traditional treatment processes do not fully remove geosmin and instead powdered activated carbon (PAC) is dosed to adsorb the compound before removal via filtration. All of North East Water’s Murray system towns have this process in place, however, the concentrations of geosmin in the source water were so high that regular dose rates were unable to fully remove the compound from the treated drinking water. North East Water’s Yarrawonga supply experienced the highest concentrations of geosmin, peaking at 1,800 ng/L (see Table 3-27 for full results). This is the highest concentration ever recorded by North East Water. This resulted in a high rate of customer complaints relating to the taste and odour of water in localities supplied by Wodonga, Wahgunyah and Yarrawonga systems. The Corporation implemented customer communication via social media while the Operations teams were busy upgrading PAC dosing systems to achieve higher dose rates. North East Water 2019/20 Drinking Water Quality Report
25 January 2023 – 3 February 2023. Yarrawonga, Bundalong, Tungamah, St James, Devenish, Goorambat. A section 22 notification was made to DH on 25 January 2023 following a high volume of water quality complaints relating to taste and odour of the water in the Yarrawonga supply system. Elevated levels of the taste and odour compound geosmin was detected in the source water and the treated water in Yarrawonga. Powdered Activated Carbon dosing was increased to treat the geosmin in response to the detected levels. North East Water received a high number of social media complaints and 11 direct complaints relating to taste and odour in Yarrawonga for the month of January 2023. Information regarding the event was placed on North East Water’s social media as well as Yarrawonga’s social media pages. A fact sheet available via North East Water’s website was also referenced for customers to learn more about geosmin. Geosmin levels receded in early February with only 1 customer complaint (3 February 2023) relating to taste and odour for the month of February 2023.
11/11/10- < 24hr Wangaratta (Cox rd tank) E.coli :1org/100mL Investigations could not identify the source.Chlorine residuals were increased. Resample was clear.
22/03/11 Wangaratta (Omaru Rd tank) E.coli :>200orgs/mL Initial inspection of the tank could not identify a contamination source, however vigilance was escalated when resample was also positive (24/3). Despite not identifying a specific contamination source, a series of actions were undertaken (including cleaning of the tank, relocation of the sample site tap, fix flashing around roof of tank) to mitigate further contamination risk. Residual disinfection was present. Further resample was clear.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Bushfires: In late February 2013, over 100 mm of rain fell at the head of the catchment over a short period which caused land slips and a major dirty water event. Turbidity levels of >30,000 NTU were recorded at the Bright offtake and >3,000 NTU a few days later at Wangaratta.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Wangaratta – Victoria – Iron
2015/16: Wangaratta Iron 0.45mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Results < ADWG guideline level over last 12 months 83%
Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are manufactured chemicals that do not occur naturally in the environment. PFAS chemicals include perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) amongst a large group of other compounds. PFAS are persistent in the environment, show the potential for bioaccumulation and biomagnification, and are toxic in animal studies (potential developmental, reproductive and systemic toxicity). Due to PFAS water and heat resistance, they have been used in a wide range of consumer products including surface treatments such as non-stick cookware, and notably in aqueous film forming foam used to extinguish fires. While the import of some PFAS in Australia has been reduced since 2002 (Environmental Health Standing Committee, 2017), historical use in firefighting foams has resulted in detections of PFAS at a number of sites including airports, firefighting training facilities and federal government sites. PFAS has also been found in groundwater, surface water, sewage treatment plant effluents and landfill leachates in international studies (Ahrens et al., 2016; Banzhaf et al., 2017). (ADWG)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
“One of the reported aluminium incidents resulted in reports of illness. This occurred in the water locality of Tallangatta, where reports of illness were received after a plant malfunction caused an excess amount of aluminium to enter the system. All reported instances of illness related to short-lived feelings of nausea upon drinking the water. Upon becoming aware of the issue the relevant water business, North East Water, took prompt corrective action to ensure that customers did not consume the water and that the problem was fixed.” Annual Report on Drinking Water Quality 2005-06
Tallangatta (Victoria) – Turbidity
17/10/10–19/10/10 Tallangatta Dirty Water – elevated turbidity in reticulation (~8NTU)
Heavy rainfall resulted in increased turbidity in Lake Hume at Tallangatta. Despite instrumentation shutting down the WTP, a slug of dirty water passed through the filters and entered the CWS. The turbid water was not identified by operational staff until it began to supply the reticulation. Once identified, the bulk of the turbid water was able to be flushed from the reticulation within a few hours. Additional monitoring was also undertaken.
As similarities and timing of both dirty water events coincided, similar long term actions were implemented. Additionally, checks of CWS water quality is linked to incident
response procedures were implemented.
18/02/11-approx. 2 months Tallangatta Widespread public complaint Due to rise in Lake Hume, high algal presence caused Taste and Odour compounds to be present in the drinking water. This caused widespread public complaint. Powdered Activated Carbon dosing was initiated, however took time to optimise. Further monitoring and improved operations at the plant reduced the levels of the T&O compounds.
“Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.”
9 January 2012 (<24 hours) St James E. coli detection (1 orgs/100 mL) Investigation of E. coli detection could not determine the cause. Residual chlorine was present and turbidity was low. Monitoring and flushing conducted. Subsequent microbiological results were clear.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
St James (Victoria) – Chlorine
Feb 2020: St James: Chlorine 5.4mg/L (max), 1.11mg/L (mean)
An elevated chlorine concentration of 5.4 mg/L was recorded at St James in February 2020 when the contracted laboratory sampled at the same time as chlorine batch dosing was occurring in a treated water storage tank. Chlorine batch dosing ensures that a sufficient chlorine residual is maintained in the extensive Yarrawonga to Goorambat pipeline system. Continuous online monitoring indicated this elevated concentration was not representative of the quality of water supplied to this locality. A Section 18 notification was submitted to DHHS.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
1/09/09 Kiewa E. coli detection 2 orgs/100mL Chlorine residuals were checked at the Tangambalanga tank and within the reticulation area. Resample was clear.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
7/09/10 –16/09/10 Harrietville Boil Water Notice Heavy rainfall resulted in increased turbidity at both source waters. As this site is unfiltered a precautionary BWN was implemented to reduce risk.
2010/11: Harrietville Turbidity 9.1NTU
2011/12: Harrietville Turbidity 5.3NTU
Australian Drinking Water Guideline 5NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
The maximum gross alpha activity result at Goorambat unexpectedly exceeded the ADWG screening level of >0.5 Bq/L which was suspected an anomalous result and prompted further investigation in accordance with ADWG 2011. The initial retest for gross alpha and gross beta activity at Goorambat returned lower levels (<0.28 Bq/L respectively) which were in the normal test range. In accordance with North East Water’s risk management plan and risk-based monitoring program, testing for radiological parameters (including individual radionuclides) is now scheduled quarterly for Goorambat until levels can be verified. (North East Water 2012/13).
Radionuclides (Other beta- and gamma-emitting)
GUIDELINE
No specific guideline values are set for beta- or gamma-emitting radionuclides.
Specific beta- or gamma-emitting radionuclides should be identified and determined only
if gross beta radioactivity (after subtracting the contribution of potassium-40) exceeds 0.5 Bq/L (27.6 Bq of beta activity per gram of stable potassium).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Several radionuclides that are classified as beta-particle or gamma-ray emitters may occasionally be present in drinking water. The significant long-lived nuclides in this group are the naturally occurring isotopes potassium-40, lead-210 and radium-228, and artificial radionuclides caesium-137 and strontium-90. Tritium, another nuclide in this group, is present in the environment both from natural sources and as a result of nuclear fall-out and nuclear power generation.
Levels of strontium-90 and caesium-137 in the Australian environment have decreased substantially since atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons ceased, and these radionuclides are not detectable in drinking water. In the absence of a nuclear power industry in Australia, these nuclides are likely to be present in significant concentrations in drinking water only as a result of transient contamination following an event such as a nuclear accident.
Potassium‑40 occurs naturally in a fixed ratio to stable potassium. Potassium is an essential element for humans, and is absorbed mainly from ingested food. Potassium-40 does not accumulate in the body but is maintained at a constant level independent of intake. The average concentration of potassium in an adult male is about 2 g/kg of bodyweight, which gives an activity mass concentration of potassium-40 of 60 Bq per kg of bodyweight. The corresponding value for females is slightly less.
Lead-210, like radium-226, is a decay product of the uranium-238 series. Food is the most important route by which lead-210 enters the human body, and the annual intake depends on diet: highest concentrations are found in fish and other aquatic species. Generally, lead-210 concentrations in drinking water are considerably less than concentrations of either radium-226 or radium-228.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
Concentrations of potassium-40 in Australian drinking water supplies vary widely, from below 0.05 Bq/L in surface water sources to more that 1 Bq/L in some supplies drawn from groundwater.
There are only limited data on concentrations of other beta- or gamma-emitting radionuclides such as lead-210, strontium-90 and caesium-137 in Australian drinking water supplies. Lead-210 concentrations are probably below 0.05 Bq/L and concentrations of artificial radionuclides are negligible.
20/1/23 – Goorambat (Victoria) – E.coli
20/1/23: Goorambat. E. coli detection (148 orgs/100 mL). A section 18 and section 22 notification was made to DH following an E. coli detection (148 orgs/100 mL) which occurred in
the Goorambat reticulation as part of routine monitoring. The sample was collected by the external laboratory on 19 January 2023 and the result was reported to North East Water on 20 January 2023. The same sample had a chlorine residual of 0.01 mg/L, turbidity of 3.63 NTU and coliform result of >250 orgs/100 mL. The CWS tanks that supply the reticulation upstream of
the detection site were tested by the external laboratory on the same day and had no E. coli, with other parameters within normal operating ranges.
The corporation completed an investigation which confirmed the detection was not representative of the water delivered, and was deemed a false positive. In accordance with the Guidelines for Investigating and Reporting E. coli Detections, an investigation report was submitted to DH. DH reviewed the investigation findings and made an assessment requiring North East Water to submit a section 18 for non-compliance with the E. coli water quality standard. This was due to the low chlorine result in the sample and inability to confirm that the chlorine barrier was effective. A section 18 was therefore submitted on 18 September 2023.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
11 Feb 2014 E.coli 1org/100mL. E. coli was detected at the Glenrowan entry point through routine monitoring. At the time of detection a free chlorine residual of 1.2 mg/L and a turbidity of 0.1 NTU was recorded. North East Water immediately investigated the suspected contamination with no cause found. An Operator visually inspected the tank at the entry point and found no signs of damage, open hatches or ingress. A free chlorine residual of 1.3 mg/L was also recorded. The contracting laboratory resampled the entry point and next nearest clear water storage on the main to Glenrowan and found good chlorine residuals and no E. coli. This incident is attributed as a sampling or analysis anomaly.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2009/10 – Glenrowan (Victoria) – Turbidity
2009/10: Glenrowan Turbidity 6.5NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Eskdale – Victoria – Iron
2013/14: Eskdale Iron 0.37mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Wilsons Reservoir Anabaena Bloom occurred between 19 Feb and 16 April 2013 It was reported to DEPI that Wilsons Reservoir was not in use at the time of the algal bloom and the surrounding area not open for public access.
Due to the lack of adequate data, no guideline value is set for concentrations of saxitoxins.
However given the known toxicity, the relevant health authority should be notified
immediately if blooms of Anabaena circinalis (Dolichospermum circinalis)1 or other producers
of saxitoxins are detected in sources of drinking water.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
There are three types of cyanobacterial neurotoxins: anatoxin a, anatoxin a-s and the saxitoxins. The saxitoxins include saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, C-toxins and gonyautoxins (Chorus and Bartram 1999 Chapter 3). The anatoxins seem unique to cyanobacteria, while saxitoxins are also produced by various dinoflagellates under the name of paralytic shellfish poisons (PSPs). A number of cyanobacterial genera can produce neurotoxins, including Anabaena (Dolichospermum), Oscillatoria, Cylindrospermopsis, Cylindrospermum, Lyngbya and Aphanizomenon, but to date in Australia, neurotoxin production has only been detected from Anabaena circinalis (Dolichospermum circinalis), and the Australian isolates appear to
produce only saxitoxins (Velzeboer et al. 1998). As with most toxic cyanobacteria, A. circinalis (D. circinalis) tends to proliferate in calm, stable waters, particularly in summer when thermal stratification reduces mixing. The toxicity of individual populations of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) is variable, and one extensive survey of the toxicity across the Murray-Darling Basin indicated that 54% of field samples tested were neurotoxic (Baker and Humpage, 1994). A natural population may consist of a mixture of toxic and non-toxic strains and this is believed to explain why population toxicity may vary over time and between samples (Chorus and Bartram 1999 Chapter 3). The saxitoxins are a group of carbamoyl and decarbamoyl alkaloids that are either non-sulfated (saxitoxins), singly-sulfated (gonyautoxins), or doubly-sulfated (C-toxins). The various types of toxins vary in potency, with saxitoxin having the highest toxicity. The prevalent toxins in Australian blooms of A. circinalis are the C-toxins. These can convert in the environment or by acidification or boiling to more potent toxins (Negri et al. 1997, Ravn et al. 1995). The half-lives for breakdown of a range of different saxitoxins in natural water have been shown to vary from 9 to 28 days, and gonyautoxins may persist in the environment for more than three months (Jones and Negri, 1997).
AUSTRALIAN SIGNIFICANCE
Blooms of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) have been recorded in many rivers, lakes, reservoirs and dams throughout Australia, and A. circinalis (D. circinalis) is the most common organism in riverine blooms in the Murray-Darling Basin (Baker and Humpage 1994). In temperate parts of Australia blooms typically occur from late spring to early autumn. The first reported neurotoxic bloom of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) in Australia occurred in 1972 (May and McBarron 1973). The most publicised blooms occurred in the Murray-Darling System in 1991, 2009 and 2010 (NSWBGATF 1992, NSW Office of Water 2009, MDBA 2010). The first bloom extended over 1,000 kilometres of the Darling-Barwon River system in New South Wales (NSWBGATF 1992). A state of emergency was declared, with a focus on providing safe drinking water to towns, communities and landholders. Stock deaths were associated with the occurrence of the bloom but there was little evidence of human health impacts. The blooms in 2009 and 2010
affected several hundred kilometres of the River Murray on the border between NSW and Victoria and included Anabaena, Microcystis and Cylindrospermopsin. Alerts were issued about risks to recreational use, primary contact by domestic users, livestock and domestic animals. A bloom of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) in a dam in New South Wales was shown to have caused sheep deaths (Negri et al. 1995). Relatively low numbers of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) (below 2,000 cells/mL) can produce offensive tastes and odours in drinking water due to the production of odorous compounds such as geosmin… ADWG 2011
8 September 2011 (5 days)Warrenheip Basin,Warrenheip(Ballarat System)E. coli – 1 org/100mL ~ 50% of Ballarat Reticulation
15 March 2012 (5 days) Warrenheip Basin, Warrenheip (Ballarat System) E. coli – 1 org/100mL ~ 50% of Ballarat Reticulation
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
27 April 2017 Mt Rowan Tank (Ballarat system) E. coli – 100 MPN/100mL 103 connections in the pressure supply zone for the network treated water storage tank
Informed DHHS and initiated incident team response. Confirmed residual disinfection in the tank and surrounding reticulation system. Reviewed hydraulics of tank and altered operation mode to prevent discharge into the system. Resampled tank. Conducted an external and internal inspection of tank integrity by divers – including a rainwater ingress check. Some leakage around the hatch identified as the source of contamination. A full sealing program conducted on the hatch and other parts of the tank as a precaution. Spot dosed the tank with disinfectant and verified adequate residual in tank and surrounding reticulation. Resamples post corrective actions
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2010/11 Pyramid Hill E.coli 11/100mL (98.1% samples no e.coli ) (1 positive)
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
12/6/18 Newstead: E. coli were detected (5 orgs/100mL) in a routine sample collected on 12 June 2018 at the outlet of the Newstead Treated Water Tank. Note that no E.coli or coliforms were detected in a routine sample collected in the Newstead water distribution network on the same day.
The Newstead tank and the distribution network receives treated water from the Castlemaine WTP. There have been difficulties in maintaining chlorine residual in the Newstead tank and the distribution network primarily due to nitrification. To improve chlorine residual, the tank has a program for manual dosing using chlorine tablets. The investigation on tablet dosing revealed that the last scheduled tablet dosing was missed. This would have contributed to the low chlorine residual recorded on the day the sample that had positive E.coli was collected.
A visual inspection of the tank identified that the roof of the Newstead tank was not draining effectively and that it was holding water. Additionally, there were rain events on the day respective sample was collected.
Therefore, the combination of low chlorine residual, rain events and issues with the tank roof likely led to the presence of E. coli in the tank and the sample could be considered as representative of the drinking water being supplied at the time of collection, which did
not meet the water quality standard for E. coli.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Residents in two Victorian towns have been warned to boil their drinking water or risk vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain.
The safety of the drinking water in Kyneton and Malmsbury, in the Macedon Ranges, was compromised after a water main burst about 1am on Tuesday, resulting in low pressure in the water system.
A health alert was issued to advise residents to boil any water being used to drink, prepare food or beverages, brush teeth, freeze for ice or to make baby formula to avoid “gastro-like symptoms”.
Water needs to be brought to a rolling boil “until a continuous and rapid stream of air-bubbles is produced from the bottom of a pan or kettle”.
“After heating, water must be allowed to cool before using it,” Coliban Water said.
“It can then be stored in a clean, closed container for later use.”
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Maldon (Victoria) Nickel
20/5/16 Maldon Nickel 0.16mg/L
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
2007/8 – Maldon Victoria) – Turbidity
2007/8 Maldon Turbidity 11NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
22/2/18: Bendigo – Southern (Victoria) – Nickel
A sample, collected from the distribution system as part of Coliban Water’s sampling program, had an elevated level of nickel (0.036 mg/L), exceeding the health-based guideline value for
nickel (0.02mg/L) in the ADWG. The investigation undertaken has concluded that the nickel
exceedance appears to be an unexplainable anomaly. It was an isolated incident and not an
ongoing issue, and the probable cause of the elevated nickel result was contamination during
sampling procedures.
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
20/2/20: A routine sample collected on 20 February 2020 at a sampling point on a trunk main that supplies treated drinking water to Spring Gully water sampling locality in the Bendigo water supply system tested positive for the presence of E. coli (1 Orgs/100mL). No probable root cause that could have led to secondary microbial contamination in the Bendigo
distribution network was identified.
Performance of the Bendigo WTP was reviewed with no issues identified A review of the upstream network distribution identified low chloramine disinfection residual in some parts of the affected locality. A number of actions are being undertaken to improve the chlorine residual in the Bendigo distribution network in order to prevent similar issues occurring in the future,
which includes the following: 1. Improved water quality monitoring; 2. A system wide, short-term period of free chlorination is being considered for the 2020/21 summer to manage
nitrification in the distribution system.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Bendigo – Spring Gully (Victoria) Lead
2007/08 – Bendigo – Spring Gully (Victoria) – Lead 0.011mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Bendigo/Spring Gully (Victoria) Nickel
25/1/18 Bendigo/Spring Gully Nickel 0.036mg/L
A sample, collected from the distribution system as part of Coliban Water’s sampling
program, had an elevated level of nickel (0.036 mg/L), exceeding the health-based guideline value for nickel (0.02mg/L) in the ADWG. The investigation undertaken has concluded that the nickel exceedance appears to be an unexplainable anomaly. It was an isolated incident and not an ongoing issue, and the probable cause of the elevated nickel result was contamination during sampling procedures.
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
2015/16: Violet Town (Victoria) Aluminium 0.5mg/L (max)
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2013/14: Toolamba (Victoria) – Iron 0.63mg/L (max)
2014/15: Toolamba (Victoria) – Iron 0.63mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Date: 30/08/2012
Estimated duration of incident: Isolated Incident
Location of incident: Shepparton
Nature of incident: Acid soluble Aluminium exceedance of 0.50mg/L. Fault at the DAFF plant with the coagulation sample line flow to the dosed pH monitoring instrument. The coagulation sample line rotamotor appears to have restricted the flow causing an incorrect measurement of pH. A pH of 6.7 was displayed on the meter & SCADA; however the actual pH was 5.3 (as confirmed with a hand held meter). The dosing pH was estimated to be out of specification for approximately one hour, which caused soluble aluminium to pass through the filters.
Drinking water supplies potentially effected: Shepparton, Mooroopna, Toolamba and Tallygaroopna
Action taken in response: Immediate action will be to replace the sample line rotamotor with a flow switch. This change is expected to avoid sample line restrictions in future.
Communication with customers: Not Required
DH notification: A Section 18 notification sent to the Department of Health on 31/08/2012.
Date: 18/06/2014
Estimated duration of incident: Isolated incident
Location of incident: Shepparton
Nature of incident: An acid soluble aluminium result of 1.5 mg/L was detected in the reticulation of Shepparton
Drinking water supplies potentially effected: Shepparton, Mooroopna, Tallygaroopna and Toolamba
Action taken in response: The Clear Water Storage which was sampled at the same time had an aluminium result of 0.21 mg/L. Treatment processes at the plant were investigated and found to be correct. The high result was confirmed by another laboratory and there was no evidence of contamination in the sample bottles themselves
Communication with customers: Nil
DH notification: A Section 18 notification was sent to the Department of Health on 4/07/2014
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Shepparton (Victoria) Iron
2019/20: Shepparton (Victoria) Iron 0.85mg/L (max)
2020/21: Shepparton (Victoria) Iron 0.59mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Shepparton (Victoria) – Suspended Sediment
3/12/22 + 16/12/22: Increased demand due to warm weather has suspended sediment in sections of the reticulation system that is being detected by customers. Due to the increase in demand additional CWS have been called into service also changing the normal hydraulic flows of the retic that has contributed to the suspension of the sediment in sections
of the reticulation system
E. coli – 24 MPN/100mL (98.1% samples during year within health guideline).
Date: 3/04/2013
Estimated duration of incident: Isolated incident
Location of incident: Yarroweyah & Strathmerton
Nature of incident: E.coli exceedances in the reticulation at Yarroweyah (24 MPN/100mL and 6 MPN/100mL). Coliforms also detected in Clear Water Storage, Water Tower and reticulation at Cobram, E.coli and coliforms in the Water Tower at Strathmerton and a single coliform in the reticulation at Strathmerton.
Drinking water supplies potentially affected: Cobram, Yarroweyah and Strathmerton
Action taken in response: Checked chlorine residuals at time of sampling, within limits. Investigation into incident revealed that there had been no water treatment process issues over the previous days, no CCP breaches had occurred. Storage checked for signs of ingress points, none found. Reticulation system flushed and response samples taken. All samples were clear of E. coli.
Communication with customers: nil
DH notification: A Section 22 notification was sent to the Department of Health on 5/04/2013.
4/12/13: Yarroweyah. E.coli
E. coli – 1 MPN/100mL (98.7% samples during year within health guideline).
Date: 4/12/2013
Estimated duration of incident: December 2013 to April 2014
Location of incident: Yarroweyah
Nature of incident: Three E.coli detections have been reported in the past twelve month period causing the rolling twelve month average to drop below the limit of 98% (97.1%).
Drinking water supplies potentially affected: Yarroweyah
Action taken in response: Nil
Communication with customers: Nil
DH notification: A Section 18 notification was sent to the Department of Health on 16/12/2013
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
E. coli – 7 MPN/100mL (98.1% samples during year within health guideline).
Date: 2/04/2013
Estimated duration of incident: Isolated incident
Location of incident: Picola
Nature of incident: E.coli exceedance in the reticulation (7 MPN/100mL) at Picola. Also E.coli detected in the Clear Water Storage (3 MPN/100mL) in routine weekly testing.
Drinking water supplies potentially affected: Picola
Action taken in response: Checked chlorine residuals at time of sampling, within limits. Investigation into incident revealed that there had been no water treatment process issues over the previous days, no CCP breaches had occurred. Storage checked for signs of ingress points, none found. Reticulation system flushed and response samples taken. All samples were clear of E. coli.
Communication with customers: nil
DH notification: A Section 22 notification was sent to the Department of Health on 4/04/2013.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Calingari (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids
2009/10: Calingari (Western Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids 899mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
2018/19: Dudinin (Western Australia) Iron 0.96mg/L (max), 0.37mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Dudinin (Western Australia) – pH (alkaline)
Average pH: 2009-10: 8.77 pH units
2010/11 Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 8.63 (av)
2011/12 Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 8.86 (av)
2013/14 Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 9.26 (av)
2014/15 Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 9.46 (av)
2015/16 Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 9.2 (av)
2016/17 Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 9.06 (av)
2017/18 Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 9.13 (av)
2018/19: Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 9 (av)
2019/20: Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 9.5 (av)
2022/23: Dudinin (Western Australia) pH 9.34 (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Jerramungup (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2009/10: Woodanilling (Western Australia) – Iron 0.3mg/L (max)
2013/14 Woodanilling (Western Australia) Iron 0.34mg/L (max), 0.24mg/L (av)
2015/16 Woodanilling (Western Australia) Iron 0.72mg/L (max), 0.42mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2009/10 Nyabing (Western Australia) – Iron
2009/10: Nyabing (Western Australia) – Iron 0.44mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2009/10: Dalwallinu (Western Australia) – Iron 0.38mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
2009/10: Mt Yokine (Western Australia) – Iron 1.4mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2009/10: Mt Yokine (Western Australia) – Iron 0.32mg/L (max)
2013/14: Mt Yokine (Western Australia) Iron 1mg/L (max), 0.239mg/L (av)
2016/17 Mt Yokine (Western Australia) Iron 0.92mg/L (max), 0.26mg/L av
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Mt Yokine – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Mt Yokine (Western Australia)
Your drinking water could be saltier than you think (even if you live in a capital) 2018 December
As the drought drags on, small communities in eastern Australia are turning to emergency water supplies. Often, this means bore water, which has prompted health fears over its high salt content.
As alarming as this is, drinking water right around Australia can have surprisingly high levels of salt. All capital cities have water salinity levels that are within the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines of 500 milligrams per litre (mg/L) – however the guidelines do not regard salinity as a health consideration, but rather as an “aesthetic” guideline, based on taste.
But Australians consume too much salt, and many need to reduce salt in their diet, so the sodium component of salt has key health implications. For people following low-sodium diets for health reasons, the salt in their drinking water may be important. It is generally recommended that people on low-sodium diets drink water with less than 20mg of sodium per litre, but Brisbane, Adelaide and most of Perth have saltier water than this.
What salinity means
Water salinity is commonly reported as “total dissolved solids,” which includes all organic and inorganic substances. “Salts” are soluble compounds of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate and bicarbonate. Salts enter our waters from everywhere: the ground, the ocean, the air and living creatures.
We investigated drinking water in Australian capital cities, and some regional locations to compare salt content. When data was not publicly available for capitals, we approached water authorities for data on water salinity.
We found four major groupings for the capital cities:
The highest salinity water was in some Perth districts
Water can start tasting noticably salty at 180 mg/L. The figure below shows which districts have less than or more than 180 mg/L.
Health implications
Generally, we all love salt in our food. But one element of salt has potentially serious consequences for many Australians: sodium. It is recommended we consume less than 2,300mg per day. People with high blood pressure should consume less than 1,600mg per day, but the average Australian consumes twice that.
High levels of sodium in the diet are associated with elevated blood pressure (hypertension), for which a sodium-reduced diet is sometimes recommended. Health care professionals may also recommend low sodium diets for patients with kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
If you’re following a low sodium diet, you may not have considered water as a potential source. It is generally recommended that people on low sodium diets drink water with less than 20 mg/L of sodium.
Salinity varies a lot
We obtained sodium data that showed water from Darwin, Canberra, Sydney, Melbourne and Hobart have less than 20 mg/L. However, Perth (most areas), Adelaide and Brisbane have more than 20mg/L of sodium in their water supplies.
However, water supplies can be complex. One district in Perth, Tamworth Hill, has 20mg of sodium per litre, which conforms with the requirements for a low-sodium diet. Another Perth district around 50km away, Mt Yokine, has sodium levels more that six times higher, at 125mg/L.
Regional and remote regions of Australia often have water with elevated salinity. Tennant Creek and Alice Springs in Northern Territory and Geraldton in WA are three regional Australian cities with sodium content higher than generally found in Australian capitals.
Horrocks in WA has the highest, based on our review of available public data. It is a very small coastal settlement 500km north of Perth. At 408 mg/L it is more than 130 times higher than Darwin’s average sodium concentration.
What can you do about it?
Where medical health professionals recommend a low sodium diet consumption of sodium through drinking water should be considered. If unsure of the sodium content of your water, and if you are on a low sodium diet, then contact your local water supplier. This could also be a topic to discuss with your doctor or other health care providers.
There are a number of small household water treatment systems that use reverse-osmosis to remove minerals. They can provide treated water with much lower sodium content.
Low-salt bottled water could be an option, but caution is needed. Apart from the expense, some commercial bottled waters also have elevated sodium levels. Check the mineral contents on the bottle label, and if you are on a low-sodium diet make sure that sodium is low.
Hard to find this data
One reason for the over-representation of the Northern Territory and Western Australia is simply that the information is available (we applaud them both). We have not been able to find sodium results for many regional and remote water supplies across Australia.
In many cases, water authorities report compliance with Australia’s Drinking Water Guidelines – as is proper – but currently sodium is not measured as a potential health issue.
We suggest sodium should be treated as a health-related attribute of drinking water. It would therefore be monitored in every water supply, and could be usefully advertised. Most people have too much salt in their diet, and it is true that much of this comes from processed food. But in some locations a surprisingly large amount can be from our drinking water.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Tamworth Hill (Western Australia) – Thermophilic Naegleria detection
2009/10: Tamworth Hill (WA) Thermophilic Naegleria 1 sample positive.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Where tap water was so dirty even dogs wouldn’t drink it
Bombala was almost the nation’s capital. In 2018, it is battling for clean drinking water.
By Emily Baker
Where else?
Bombala is not the only town within the Snowy Monaro Regional Council’s jurisdiction without clean drinking water. The water supply to Delegate, a town of about 350, was declared unsafe for drinking in 2015 after its chlorination regime was deemed inadequate for controlling disease-carrying micro-organisms.
Delegate General Store owner Irene Butterworth said she now sold six 15-litre containers of water each week and had “lost count” of her four and 10-litre sales.
Delegate Cafe uses rainwater in its coffee machines; elsewhere, filters are employed. Owner Uland Sievert said each filter was replaced three times last year.
Nicole Mellon was shocked to learn she couldn’t drink water from her tap when she moved to Delegate from Jervis Bay. Her cat fell ill with a kidney infection soon after her family moved to the town. The vet said it was unrelated to the water, but she’s not so sure.
Ms Mellon’s baths run brown and her shower smells like dirt. When she doesn’t cook with bottled water her food tastes like chemicals, she said. And, as in Bombala, her white washing often stains brown.
“I’m so frustrated – it’s a frustrating feeling being charged for water when we’re not able to use it, drink it,” Ms Mellon said.
“I think the council needs to listen to the people of Delegate because Delegate gets left out of everything.”
Delegate was well-represented at the public meeting organised by Ms Gimbert, as was nearby Nimmitabel. Between 200 and 300 people attended the event.
Delegate was told it would have potable water within a year.
Now
Bombala was once touted as a possible site for the nation’s capital. At least the water now mostly seems clean. But some residents still don’t trust the supply, which sometimes runs brown when taps are first turned on.
The federal government’s Australian Drinking Water Guidelines suggest drinking water should be aesthetically pleasing in appearance, taste and odour.
” … ultimately it is consumers who will be the final judges of water quality,” the 1167-page document said.
“System operators must maintain a personal sense of responsibility and dedication to providing consumers with safe water, and should never ignore a consumer complaint about water quality.”
People within the Snowy Monaro Regional Council district have until August 14 to send in a submission on whether Bombala residents should receive a $1.56 per kilolitre rebate due to “water quality issues”. Otherwise, their water rates will be upped to more than $3 per kilolitre.
Ms Dracopoulos, who has kept “Tap water (brown)” on the menu at her business, Cosmo Cafe, has considered taking the council to the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission or the Commonwealth Ombudsman.
“They’re a corporation who will not accept responsibility for their services,” she said.
“If I gave you a bad hamburger in the shop, I would have to acknowledge that somewhere along the line there was a fault. I’d investigate it, look at it and go yep, we’ve done something wrong. I’d refund it or there’d be some sort of compensation.
“I can’t believe the mentality, more than anything. I know this council didn’t create the problem but guess what? They’ve adopted it, and they’ve adopted us, and they’re stuck with it.
Where tap water was so dirty even dogs wouldn’t drink it
Bombala was almost the nation’s capital. In 2018, it is battling for clean drinking water.
By Emily Baker
Bombala is known for its extreme temperatures: highs up to 40 degrees in summer and lows well below zero in the depths of winter. Throughout the cooler months, frost blankets the ground and woodsmoke hangs in the air. The mean minimum temperature for June was less than 1 degree.
Alison Gimbert has lived in the south-east NSW town of about 1400 people since 1983. Last year, when the mercury dipped below minus 5 degrees six times in July alone, she gave up on hot showers.
Ms Gimbert was not worried about her power bill. She was not worried about her water bill, though that came later. Ms Gimbert was worried about her dreadfully itchy skin.
“I thought it must’ve been my soap, my shampoo. I went through everything,” she said.
“I tried creams and everything. I’ve made my legs bleed, laying in bed and scratch, scratch, scratch.
“All last winter I had what I would call a cold shower trying to stop it, and I used to freeze. I knew it had to be something but I couldn’t get any answers.”
Finally, in February this year, it clicked. It wasn’t the temperature of the water. It was the water. And Ms Gimbert wasn’t the only Bombala resident having an uncomfortable reaction.
Margaret Smith, who has lived in Bombala 11 years, said she was usually itchy after a shower. Dina Dracopoulos’s skin was once so unbearably itchy she scratched her arms with the blunt side of a knife until they bled. Seventy-five-year-old Sylvia Brown was prescribed medication to manage her dry, itchy skin, as was hairdresser Nicky Gulliford’s 18-year-old daughter, Lahiesha, who visited three GPs before being issued with antibiotics and creams.
There are stories of Bombala babies being taken to other towns to bathe, a woman with peeling hands, and children with sudden and severe bouts of eczema and dermatitis.
It seems a mysterious phenomenon. But Bombala’s water hasn’t just made people itchy – at various points, it has been visibly filthy. Jars filled with tap water seen by Fairfax Media were heavy with sediment. Some samples were so dark they appeared more like mud than water.
The issue has caused much anguish in the town. Women with washing tie-dyed brown and yellow this year stormed the council’s office brandishing their ruined whites. People turned to bottled water for their cooking. Kettles, toilet cisterns and hot water systems were breaking. Even animals refused to drink water from the tap.
By March, when a fed-up Ms Gimbert called a public meeting on the situation, Bombala had been battling brown, smelly water on and off for about six months. Longer, according to some. They were sick of being ignored.
And although the Snowy Monaro Regional Council is now working to right the town’s water woes – after intense lobbying and the fiery public meeting – it has also proposed to more than double what Bombala residents pay for what comes from their taps.
What’s wrong?
Bombala’s water is pumped from the Coolumbooka River into a decades-old filtration plant described variously by Snowy Monaro Regional Council Mayor John Rooney as “a museum piece” and “obsolete”.
According to Cr Rooney, the 60-year-old pipes through which the water flowed were clogged with 60 years of “sludge”. Both issues were a hangover from previous councils, he told the March public meeting. Those bodies were amalgamated in 2016.
Event attendees were told it was difficult for the filtration plant’s old equipment to monitor how much of each chemical was required to filter the raw water. Chemical dosages had “not been optimal” for about 20 years, council water and wastewater manager Mark Rixon said, and a build-up of aluminium flowed freely through the water when there was an imbalance. He said that explained the water’s turbidity.
“It’s not necessarily bad for you, though I wouldn’t recommend you drink it, but it is not a significant health impact,” Mr Rixon said, later adding: “It looks shitty and it probably is.”
An investigation of the plant, also held in March, found on-site testing equipment was “not clean”. Slides from a PowerPoint given to residents in May said some water testing was not done and daily results were not recorded.
The plant’s broader equipment was old and unmaintained, the chemical dosing pumps weren’t working, there were no records of raw water quality and the plant’s human operators had little technical support.
Further, there were no chemicals at the plant for removing taste and odour from the water, nor for removing iron and manganese.
In April, specialist divers vacuumed almost 70 cubic metres of sludge from the main holding tank at Bombala’s water facility.
The public meeting was told the council planned to annually replace three kilometres of Bombala’s 36-kilometre water pipe network – “provided we get sufficient funding from the state government to do so” – meaning the system would be replaced within 12 years. Later, Cr Rooney said the town would have clean water within 12 months. The water mains have since been cleaned and some upgrades made to the plant.
Fairax Mediaapproached several bodies for clarity on what was wrong with the supply, potential health risks and what had been done to address the problems.
NSW Health, when asked about the testing of water within the Snowy Monaro Regional Council’s boundaries, said the council was responsible for water supply and its quality. It did not know how many NSW towns were without clean drinking water.
A Southern NSW Local Health District spokeswoman confirmed the Bombala hospital had used bottled water four times between June 2017 and June 2018.
“This is in line with advice from the Snowy Monaro Regional Council that the water did not meet stringent health guidelines due to severe drought and lower than average river and dam levels,” she said.
A Snowy Mountains Regional Council spokesman did not respond to questions about health risks to residents. The spokesman said the council had “made considerable improvements” to water quality, recently spending more than $100,000 on maintenance work.
An inquiry to the office of NSW Deputy Premier and Monaro representative John Barilaro – who pledged $15 million to fix the issue at Ms Gimbert’s public meeting in March, and has previously promised funding – also went unanswered.
Affected residents said they were still unsure of the water’s impact on their health.
Things had improved, they agreed. “Personally, I don’t itch as much,” Ms Gimbert said.
Where else?
Bombala is not the only town within the Snowy Monaro Regional Council’s jurisdiction without clean drinking water. The water supply to Delegate, a town of about 350, was declared unsafe for drinking in 2015 after its chlorination regime was deemed inadequate for controlling disease-carrying micro-organisms.
Delegate General Store owner Irene Butterworth said she now sold six 15-litre containers of water each week and had “lost count” of her four and 10-litre sales.
Delegate Cafe uses rainwater in its coffee machines; elsewhere, filters are employed. Owner Uland Sievert said each filter was replaced three times last year.
Nicole Mellon was shocked to learn she couldn’t drink water from her tap when she moved to Delegate from Jervis Bay. Her cat fell ill with a kidney infection soon after her family moved to the town. The vet said it was unrelated to the water, but she’s not so sure.
Ms Mellon’s baths run brown and her shower smells like dirt. When she doesn’t cook with bottled water her food tastes like chemicals, she said. And, as in Bombala, her white washing often stains brown.
“I’m so frustrated – it’s a frustrating feeling being charged for water when we’re not able to use it, drink it,” Ms Mellon said.
“I think the council needs to listen to the people of Delegate because Delegate gets left out of everything.”
Delegate was well-represented at the public meeting organised by Ms Gimbert, as was nearby Nimmitabel. Between 200 and 300 people attended the event.
Delegate was told it would have potable water within a year.
Now
Bombala was once touted as a possible site for the nation’s capital. At least the water now mostly seems clean. But some residents still don’t trust the supply, which sometimes runs brown when taps are first turned on.
The federal government’s Australian Drinking Water Guidelines suggest drinking water should be aesthetically pleasing in appearance, taste and odour.
” … ultimately it is consumers who will be the final judges of water quality,” the 1167-page document said.
“System operators must maintain a personal sense of responsibility and dedication to providing consumers with safe water, and should never ignore a consumer complaint about water quality.”
People within the Snowy Monaro Regional Council district have until August 14 to send in a submission on whether Bombala residents should receive a $1.56 per kilolitre rebate due to “water quality issues”. Otherwise, their water rates will be upped to more than $3 per kilolitre.
Ms Dracopoulos, who has kept “Tap water (brown)” on the menu at her business, Cosmo Cafe, has considered taking the council to the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission or the Commonwealth Ombudsman.
“They’re a corporation who will not accept responsibility for their services,” she said.
“If I gave you a bad hamburger in the shop, I would have to acknowledge that somewhere along the line there was a fault. I’d investigate it, look at it and go yep, we’ve done something wrong. I’d refund it or there’d be some sort of compensation.
“I can’t believe the mentality, more than anything. I know this council didn’t create the problem but guess what? They’ve adopted it, and they’ve adopted us, and they’re stuck with it.
We explore the link between NSW waterways and a toxin that might trigger MND.
Professor Dominic Rowe of Macquarie Neurology says, “From 1986 to 2016, there’s been a 250% increase in Motor Neurone Disease as a cause of death in Australia and that can only be environmental…”
Research overseas has linked the neurotoxin BMAA, a by-product of blue-green algae, to MND. This toxin was recently discovered in Lake Wyangan in NSW.
It’s also been found in a number of other drought-affected New South Wales waterways, including along the Darling River.
Professor Rowe says, “If we can understand what in the environment triggers Motor Neurone Disease, conceivably we could prevent [it] from even occurring.”
Tim Trembath, an MND sufferer, lives at Lake Cargelligo, which is 140-kilometers north of Griffith. He’s spent a lot of time at this lake, where there’s been an outbreak of blue-green algae.
Tim says, “Up until about 2010, the lake water was the water that was used for drinking and washing in the town.”
The disease has stripped Tim of his ability to ride his motorbike and he needs regular care. Two of his friends in the 1500-resident town have died from MND.
“Anyone who lives in this town has probably swum in the lake, and the lake has algal blooms in it nearly every summer.”
While it’s easy to assume there’s a link between these waterways and MND, Professor Rowe says, “It is highly unlikely that there’s going to be one specific environmental trigger, it’s likely to be a combination of factors.”
Remote NSW Darling River town expected to run out of raw water within days
A council in far west New South Wales has started trucking water to a remote Darling River town that is expected to run out of raw water within days.
The township of Pooncarie, on the Darling River Run between Wentworth and Menindee, is home to about 40 people.
It is the second time in four years the town has been forced to turn to emergency supplies of water, with no inflows into the Menindee Lakes causing the lower Darling River to dry up.
“Usually Pooncarie gets water straight from the river, from the Lower Darling, but unfortunately due to the dry conditions it appears that they’re going to run out of water sometime in the next two or three days,” said Peter Hyde, the NSW Department of Industry’s director of inland water planning.
“There is a bore that was put in place in 2015, and that provides water for drinking water and showering.
“It doesn’t give them enough water in terms of being able to provide water for gardens and some of the green spaces that are really important for people’s mental health during dry periods like what we’re in now.”
While the bore can supply water for household use, the trucked-in water is needed for toilets and, potentially, firefighting.
Pooncarie boasts a hotel, a general store and a cafe.
The death of hundreds of thousands of fish in the lower Darling earlier this year fuelled ongoing debate about the effect water management is having on the river, and fisheries officers have recently been in the Pooncarie area removing native fish to relocate them south near the Murray-Darling junction at Wentworth.
‘Come and say g’day’
Josh Sheard, who runs the Pooncarie Hotel Motel, moved to the town about six years ago from Central Victoria and is about to experience a dry Darling River for the second time.
“People are concerned,” Mr Sheard said.
“There is reason to be concerned, but there are steps in place for us to be looked after.”
Mr Sheard said there were “mixed reports” about the quality of the bore water the town has been using since November 2018, when the water in the Pooncarie weir pool became too salty to be used for a potable supply.
Some remote stations along the lower Darling have been receiving trucked water from Wentworth Shire Council for several months, although many have not allowed their children to come into contact with it.
“Personally, I think it’s quite good — you can drink it, and for showering and things like that there’s not any great issues with it,” Mr Sheard said.
“A few of the children have problems with eczema and things like that, but it’s not serious at this stage.”
With tourism critical to the town’s economy and its annual race meeting coming up on October 5, Mr Sheard is hopeful the water situation will not deter visitors.
“It’s not an ideal situation we’re in but the town’s still here and people need to come out and say g’day and support us for themselves,” he said.
Trucking water to remote towns not new for council
Carting water to its most remote residents is not a new phenomenon for Wentworth Shire Council.
When the river last ran dry, in 2015, it had to deliver clean water to landholders, who needed to spend thousands of dollars installing tanks on their properties to be able to accept the trucked-in supply.
“But this is the first time we’ve ever carted to the town of Pooncarie itself,” Wentworth Mayor Melisa Hederics said.
“We’re usually carting to station owners.”
Councillor Hederics was at a meeting with NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian and Deputy Premier John Barilaro in Sydney on Thursday, as senior staff at the Wentworth council prepared to begin trucking water to Pooncarie.
“This is a big thing and like I said, we were in Sydney and as soon as we mentioned it, it spread like wildfire and it was out there, so that’s a good thing,” Cr Hederics said.
“It’s not a little job, it’s a big job and it’s an expensive cause that we have to take but you know what, that’s the position we’re in and as a council, that’s what we’ll be doing.”
The State Government already has an agreement in place to reimburse the council the full cost of water carting, because station owners have been receiving trucked water for months.
The funding arrangement runs until the end of the year, although there is no indication it will not be extended.
“I think it would be a pretty poor State Government if they said no to supplying or refunding water for those people up there,” Cr Hederics said.
“Dare I say it, it’s probably going to get worse before it gets better out here with this drought.
“So we will definitely make sure that all our ratepayers out there in those areas are looked after with this water.
“That’s what our job is, to look after people out there.”
We explore the link between NSW waterways and a toxin that might trigger MND.
Professor Dominic Rowe of Macquarie Neurology says, “From 1986 to 2016, there’s been a 250% increase in Motor Neurone Disease as a cause of death in Australia and that can only be environmental…”
Research overseas has linked the neurotoxin BMAA, a by-product of blue-green algae, to MND. This toxin was recently discovered in Lake Wyangan in NSW.
It’s also been found in a number of other drought-affected New South Wales waterways, including along the Darling River.
Professor Rowe says, “If we can understand what in the environment triggers Motor Neurone Disease, conceivably we could prevent [it] from even occurring.”
Tim Trembath, an MND sufferer, lives at Lake Cargelligo, which is 140-kilometers north of Griffith. He’s spent a lot of time at this lake, where there’s been an outbreak of blue-green algae.
Tim says, “Up until about 2010, the lake water was the water that was used for drinking and washing in the town.”
The disease has stripped Tim of his ability to ride his motorbike and he needs regular care. Two of his friends in the 1500-resident town have died from MND.
“Anyone who lives in this town has probably swum in the lake, and the lake has algal blooms in it nearly every summer.”
While it’s easy to assume there’s a link between these waterways and MND, Professor Rowe says, “It is highly unlikely that there’s going to be one specific environmental trigger, it’s likely to be a combination of factors.”
We explore the link between NSW waterways and a toxin that might trigger MND.
Professor Dominic Rowe of Macquarie Neurology says, “From 1986 to 2016, there’s been a 250% increase in Motor Neurone Disease as a cause of death in Australia and that can only be environmental…”
Research overseas has linked the neurotoxin BMAA, a by-product of blue-green algae, to MND. This toxin was recently discovered in Lake Wyangan in NSW.
It’s also been found in a number of other drought-affected New South Wales waterways, including along the Darling River.
Professor Rowe says, “If we can understand what in the environment triggers Motor Neurone Disease, conceivably we could prevent [it] from even occurring.”
Tim Trembath, an MND sufferer, lives at Lake Cargelligo, which is 140-kilometers north of Griffith. He’s spent a lot of time at this lake, where there’s been an outbreak of blue-green algae.
Tim says, “Up until about 2010, the lake water was the water that was used for drinking and washing in the town.”
The disease has stripped Tim of his ability to ride his motorbike and he needs regular care. Two of his friends in the 1500-resident town have died from MND.
“Anyone who lives in this town has probably swum in the lake, and the lake has algal blooms in it nearly every summer.”
While it’s easy to assume there’s a link between these waterways and MND, Professor Rowe says, “It is highly unlikely that there’s going to be one specific environmental trigger, it’s likely to be a combination of factors.”
1 March 2018: Mahers Road Tank (Ballarat system). E.coli
E. coli – 1 MPN/100mL. 215 connections in the pressure supply zone for the network treated water storage tank.
“Informed DHHS and initiated incident team response. Confirmed residual disinfection in the tank and surrounding reticulation system. Reviewed hydraulics of tank and altered operation mode to prevent discharge into the system. Resampled tank. Conducted an external and internal inspection of tank integrity. Some potential minor ingress points on the tank roof identified as the most likely sources of contamination. Sealing program conducted on tank roof and entry hatch, together with cleaning of debris around the air vent as a precaution. Reviewed tank inspection processes. Spot dosed the tank with disinfectant and verified adequate residual in tank and surrounding reticulation. Resamples post corrective actions clear of contamination.
Investigation report submitted to DHHS.” Central Highlands Water Annual Drinking Water Quality Report 2017/18
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Calls to fix ‘putrid’ problem affecting ‘whole series of Aussie towns’
Experts say more needs to be done to help the ‘struggling’ residents of Aussie towns putting up with sub-standard water.
https://au.news.yahoo.com/calls-to-fix-putrid-problem-affecting-whole-series-of-aussie-towns-070828074.html. Dec 14 2023. By Carly Bass
Spending thousands of dollars a year on bottled water is the norm for residents in a small Aussie town who say they’re unable to drink straight from the tap because of the poor water quality.
Living in the southwest town for five years, Gail Reid says the water “most times is undrinkable” and as a result, she spends between $40 and $50 a week on bottled water to drink, and to use for cooking.
Spending thousands of dollars a year on bottled water is the norm for residents in a small Aussie town who say they’re unable to drink straight from the tap because of the poor water quality.
Living in the southwest town for five years, Gail Reid says the water “most times is undrinkable” and as a result, she spends between $40 and $50 a week on bottled water to drink, and to use for cooking.
“It has a rotten smell to it, and on a bad day if you do washing, white clothes will come out brown,” she told Yahoo News Australia.
“I know a person who had to replace his hot water system twice in the last two and a half years because of the water issue. It is putrid, the colour of it, the smell is like rotten socks”.
“[The water] is affected by water hardness, dissolved solids, high organic matter, iron and manganese; causing the varying taste and colour long experienced by local residents,” Yass Valley Council’s website says. “Council recognises that the potability of Yass water is an issue for local residents.” Yahoo News has approached the council to discuss the town’s water quality.
Hundreds of regional towns have poor water quality
Living in the southwest town for five years, Gail Reid says the water “most times is undrinkable” and as a result, she spends between $40 and $50 a week on bottled water to drink, and to use for cooking.
“It has a rotten smell to it, and on a bad day if you do washing, white clothes will come out brown,” she told Yahoo News Australia.
“I know a person who had to replace his hot water system twice in the last two and a half years because of the water issue. It is putrid, the colour of it, the smell is like rotten socks”.
Council claims ‘water is safe to drink’
A study conducted by Yass Valley Council found 85 per cent of survey respondents in the area did not drink tap water, ABC reported. However, according to the council’s website, the water is safe to drink.
“[The water] is affected by water hardness, dissolved solids, high organic matter, iron and manganese; causing the varying taste and colour long experienced by local residents,” Yass Valley Council’s website says. “Council recognises that the potability of Yass water is an issue for local residents.” Yahoo News has approached the council to discuss the town’s water quality.
Hundreds of regional towns have poor water quality
“You do not have problems like this in the capital cities of Australia,” Wright told Yahoo News. “This is yet another example of sub-standard water that people in regional NSW endure.”
“When I go to a country town and have a shower, I can smell this wave of chlorine hits me and I realise, okay, if you can smell the chlorine, it’s good because it’s disinfecting the water. But it’s also an indication of the more chlorine, the worse the water,” he added.
‘Health concerns’ for young children
The discolouration of the water found in Yass is a clear indication of how bad the water is, he said. Photos supplied to Yahoo by Yass resident Reid show the extent of the problem they’re facing.
Parents are forced to bathe their kids in dirty bathwater, and water bottles and buckets are a deep shade of brown.
“My concerns are for young children and what effects it will have on their health in years to come,” Reid said.
Residents launch petition for safer drinking water
In a petition started by Reid, residents are calling for the treatment plant to be replaced which would in turn help with better quality water. The first water treatment facility was constructed in 1938 and was last upgraded in 1990.
Dr Wright said “it’s “easy to fix any water quality problem” in any regional town, but they desperately need government funding and support.
“They’re just struggling. They’re struggling and they need help,” he said. “The engineering, the expertise, the technology is there, it’s money and it’s support”.
Department of Planning delays fixing Yass’ dirty water
aboutregional.com.au Jan 13 2021
Residents in the NSW town of Yass could be waiting for years for a solution to their brown, smelly water, with the NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment telling the local council it doesn’t support plans for a new water treatment plant.
The silver lining is that the department has backed Yass Valley Council’s proposal to upgrade the existing raw water pump station and install bubble plume aeration at a cost of about $2 million, which will improve the drinking water in the short-term and is due to be completed by January 2022.
However, the department is reluctant to endorse council’s proposal to construct a new water treatment plant or rehabilitate the existing treatment units at a cost of about $31.2 million.
That’s despite former Goulburn MP Pru Goward promising in the lead up to the NSW state election that a new water treatment plant would be funded by the NSW Liberals and Nationals’ $1 billion Safe and Secure Water infrastructure program.
In a statement to Region Media, the department said: “The department is continuing ongoing discussions with Yass Valley Council. The department supports the resolution to progress stage one (raw water pump station upgrade, bubble plume aeration installation and urgent works at the existing water treatment plant) as a priority in advance of finalising discussions on stages two (new water treatment plant) and three (rehabilitation of existing treatment units).
“This includes the development of a detailed business case by the council which includes financial modelling.”
However, that business case won’t be completed by council until a peer review of stages two and three, according to Yass Valley Council’s manager of water and wastewater, Kuga Kugaprasatham. The peer review will begin in January and run until May. The detailed design and business case are then expected to be completed by February 2022.
Council had hired a consultant, Hunter H20, to help with upgrade options for the water treatment plant, and has asked for a peer review of those options to assist its discussions with the department.
Yass Valley Council says “stage one is by no means the solution to the current water quality problems of Yass” and that “a new water treatment plant [is] the council’s preferred option as it addresses the colour, odour and hardness water quality issues.”
Despite all this, the department would not explain to Region Media why it doesn’t support the new water treatment plant.
Residents say they prefer to buy bottled water than drink Yass water. They won’t bathe their children in the water and say it damages appliances including stainless steel kettles.
Bec Smedley lives close to the water treatment plant in Yass and turned on her tap on 28 December, 2020, to find dark brown water ran into her basin.
She says she tried to run her taps as advised by council, but the water colour only worsened.
“I’ve lived here my whole life and the water has always been up and down in quality,” says Bec. “Some days when you turn on the shower, it smells like you’re at the pool and makes you itchy after you dry off.”
Lizzie Stevens has also experienced the water running from a tea colour to dark brown throughout the 11 years and three different houses she’s lived in on the opposite side of Yass. She recently shared a photo of a baby bottle filled with yellow water and says she usually buys water instead of using water from the tap.
“I have four kids aged between 18 months and 11 years old, and it’s worried me with each baby,” she says.
The federal Labor MP for Yass, Kristy McBain, says it’s “abundantly clear” that Yass’ water needs fixing.
Her predecessor, Mike Kelly, also promised to fund the new Yass water treatment plant if Labor had been elected in the federal election.
“I welcome the agreement reached on stage one of the works,” said Ms McBain. “However, we also need to work towards long-term solutions.”
She said she will work with the community, the NSW Government and Yass Valley Council to achieve that solution.
“We would never expect people in our cities to drink brown, smelly water,” said Ms McBain. “The residents of the Yass Valley deserve no less.”
Region Media also contacted state Liberal MP for Yass, Wendy Tuckerman, and is waiting for a response.
Boil Water Alert for residents of Binalong, Bowning and Yass
Following heavy rain within the Yass Dam water supply catchment, Yass Valley Council in conjunction with NSW Health has introduced a Boil Water Alert for Yass, Binalong, and Bowning.
Council has said that the Boil Water Alert is likely to be in place for at least one week and could be longer depending on how quickly things settle down after the recent heavy rainfall.
“More rain is predicted at the end of the week and this follow up rain may result in an extension of the Boil Water Alert, depending on its intensity,” a statement issued by the council states.
Acting Director of Infrastructure & Assets, Steven Beasley said that there is no link to the discharge of partially treated effluent from the Lower Molonglo Water Control Centre by ICON Water on Sunday.
“The drinking water supplying the towns of Yass, Bowning, and Binalong is drawn from Yass Dam. The majority of ‘source’ or ‘raw’ water supplies in Australia contain natural levels or organic and inorganic material,” he said.
“The aim of water treatment is to reduce the levels of organic and inorganic material and, in particular, any material associated with pathogens such as protozoa, bacteria, and viruses.
“In the case of Yass, heavy rain caused raw water to become extremely turbid (not clear or transparent because of stirred-up sediment) and compromised the effectiveness of the treatment process.
“Council has a strict water quality management system in place at Yass WTP and turbidity trigger levels were reached, ultimately resulting in the issue of a Boil Water Alert in consultation with NSW Health.”
Residents and businesses will be advised when the boil water notice is lifted through the council’s website, Facebook page, and the local media.
Yass residents call for water charge rebates on ‘swamp-like tap water’
After months of living with what has been described as “brown, swamp-smelling water”, hundreds of residents from a southern NSW town have called on their local council to rebate water usage and pay for damaged laundry.
A petition by a group called Fix Yass Water, signed by more than 600 Yass residents, has asked for a reduction in water charges and partial refunds for the past six months.
Prior to the state election, both sides of government said they would upgrade the Yass water treatment plant, with the Coalition pledging to cover the full cost of the project.
But residents said the solution was not coming quickly enough.
“The worsened water supply has led to damaged appliances, damaged clothing and fabric items and has forced residents to go to the added expense of purchasing water for cooking/drinking or filtration units for homes,” the petition said.
“All of these outcomes, from poor water supply, have had significant financial impact on residents.”
One of the requests from the group was rebates for repairs or replacements to appliances, water filters, damaged clothing and fabrics to be available to residents upon the presentation of receipts.
‘Completely inconsistent’
Resident David Osbourne said the letter was designed to keep the matter front of mind.
“I’ve lived in Yass for about 10 years now and in that time I’ve never drunk the water, but in the past six months we’ve even had trouble even washing our clothes and other people are complaining about the same thing as well,” Mr Osbourne said.
“Our clothes don’t smell like they’re washed when they come out of the machine.”
Mr Osbourne described it as a swamp or creek-water smell.
“It’s completely inconsistent across the town, some people have non-smelly but brown water, other people have both — smelly water and brown water.”
He said people had been advised to run their taps to clear the water, but that led to increased bills.
Some have said their water bills have tripled.
“We want to know what’s available and what can be done, we want to know what we’re legally entitled to,” Mr Osbourne said.
Council consider request
Yass Valley mayor Rowena Abbey said the council would think about the group’s requests.
“The petition was about trying to get some recompense for things that have got stained in washing or the fact that they’ve had to run their taps longer to try and clear the pipes, so that will be considered in a further report to council,” she said.
The first report to the council on the request said rebates or refunds could not be paid unless the council increased the supply charge.
It was recommended the council reject that idea, because it would affect all users, not just those with discolouration issues.
Cr Abbey said the design and planning for the plant upgrade was “well underway”.
Brown tap water across Western NSW deserves state of emergency response
The NSW Government must supply and distribute free bottled water across the growing number of rural towns unable to drink their tap water.
It’s only fair government step in to help those enduring third world living conditions, due to government draining of lakesand mismanagement of our river system.
Brown water crisis
The small town of Billmari, near Cowra, is one of several towns where potable water is too dangerous to drink.
Ironically, Billmari is an Aboriginal word meaning ‘plenty of water’.
Menindee now has plenty ofbrown water coming out of taps. Menindee is where locals begged governments not to drain their lake in 2017, because the lake supplies their drinking water. Governments ignored them.
Residents in Wilcannia, Hay, Cootamundra, Ganmain, Coolah and Yass have also reported foul-tasting tap water to us.
Walgett has faced such severe drinking water restrictions that generous Dubbo residents have supplied them with bottled water via a Facebook campaign.
But why are drought-stricken neighbouring towns carrying the can for the governments who caused this mess?
Last weekend, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian went to Coogee Beach. She pledged millions of dollars to clean the beach swimming water there.
It’s now time for Gladys to come out west to help those who can’t even drink the tap water.
State of emergency time
If an oil spill poisoned a river, killing one million fish and robbing towns of their drinking water, the NSW Government would declare a state of emergency.
This would force government agencies to get out to affected areas; and help the many residents who can’t afford expensive bottled water.
Under NSW state law, the Premier can call a state of emergency due to: fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, accident, epidemic or warlike action which endangers people’s health.
There are several state government departments that administer water, employing thousands of bureaucrats.
Why not get them out to Menindee, Walgett, Billmari and other affected towns, to set up water hubs and to distribute free bottled water?
It’s the least the government could do.
Royal Commission next
We’ve both traveled to third world countries like Papua New Guinea, India and Cambodia. Not being able to drink the tap water was the biggest difference between those places and Australia.
That’s why it’s disgraceful we’ve let things come to this in our regional towns.
Clean drinking water should be the number one priority of any civilised nation, ranking well above Sydney stadiums and beaches.
This is why we urgently need a federal royal commission into how governments manage our rivers.
A royal commission will expose the government’s bad decisions on draining lakes; and flush out wealthy National Party donors who rort the system.
But Royal Commissions can take years, and we have a crisis now.
The state government needs to get cracking. It’s time for immediate state of emergency-style provision of free bottled water to towns like Menindee, Walgett and Billmari, where tap water is too dangerous to drink.
Roy Butler is the SFF candidate for Barwon. Helen Dalton is the SFF candidate for Murray.
Yass resident Sarah Hodgson said the town’s dirty and smelly water could be behind a recent bout of giardia suffered by her husband and children.
Discoloured and foul-smelling water in the regional New South Wales town, an hour outside of Canberra, has been an ongoing problem for years, but officials and health professionals maintain the water is safe to drink.
“I’m sick and tired of hearing from people or the Council say that the water is safe to drink, when that is not the case,” Ms Hodgson told ABC Radio Canberra.
“Animals won’t drink it.”
Ms Hodgson said she and her family did not drink the water, but they bathed in it and brushed their teeth with it.
“Obviously that’s where this bug has got through and made my family sick,” she said.
“So my issue with the water [is] yes, there’s ways to have healthy drinking water — however there is no way, that we can see, to protect my kids from getting sick.
“It’s something that I’m now going to have to plan time off work for this sort of issue to keep occurring.”
‘Colour ranging from urine to brown’
The “dirty little secret” plaguing the town has sparked a Facebook complaint group, a crowdfunding account and now, a song.
Local musician Daniel Kelly took to YouTube to vent his watery woes.
As Kelly sang, “the smell’s hard to define, between mouldy socks and slime.”
Kelly also said the water could “make your stomach turn” and was “not fit to bathe your kids”.
Is the water in Yass making people sick?
The foul smell from the taps in Yass has driven some people to source water directly from Canberra, while mains filters have been suggested by others as a potential solution.
Yass GP Doctor Ray Burn said he had not treated anyone he believed had contracted an illness from drinking local water.
“I don’t think it’s dangerous,” he said.
“Anything with a suspicious taste or colour — we’ll blame everything on it.”
However, he said he was sympathetic with residents fed up with the condition of the water.
“A lot of people bring their own water into town for work, from the tank at home,” he said.
“The Council does a good job in purification but you can’t always ensure it will look and taste good.”
The latest report on the Yass, Binalong and Bowning water supply system, posted on January 30, showed the water was meeting the required health guidelines for chlorine, E.coli and manganese.
But it failed on two points related to the aesthetics of the water: colour and manganese.
Councillor Jasmin Jones posted to Facebook on Sunday reassuring residents the water was safe to drink.
“I’m in the same boat as you when it comes to the water — I’m drinking it, I’m bathing in it, I’m using it for my cooking,” she said.
“While it doesn’t taste great at the moment, the water is turning over, and there’s levels of manganese that make it taste awful.
“It’s a nuisance and a problem for our businesses needing softer water for their machinery.”
Clear water would cost Yass households $235 annually for 20 years
The quality of the town’s water became particularly bad due to a combination of hot weather and limited rainfall over an extended period.
It caused excessive levels of manganese and iron elements, leading to water discolouration and an unpleasant smell, a statement from Yass Valley Council said.
Mayor Rowena Abbey said the town did not have the money for a new water filtration plant, which would cost $11 million.
In 2013, the council raised the Yass Dam by 3 metres to the tune of $22 million.
It was a move aimed at increasing the dam’s service capacity from 7,500 people to 15,000, but it did not improve the water’s appearance and taste.
The mayor said it had been a “difficult decision” to choose security over quality.
“If Council had made the decision to address water quality, instead of water security, we may presently have better tasting water, but we would also be experiencing severe water restrictions like our neighbouring local government areas,” she said.
If the $11 million could not be sourced, she said, a loan would cost ratepayers about $235 per year for every household with a water collection, for 20 years.
“Yes, the water gets tested regularly but unfortunately the smell and the colour are — certainly in parts of Yass — a problem for Yass Council at the moment,” she said.
“It doesn’t look very appealing to drink and it doesn’t smell appealing.”
Yass calling for funding help from federal, state governments
The Council does not want to slug ratepayers with the cost of the new filtration plant and has applied for a number of grants to seek funding to foot the bill.
Instead, they hoped to compel candidates competing in upcoming state and federal elections to commit to a solution, the mayor said.
“Having a prolonged drought doesn’t help either,” she said.
“The problem is a the cost — some people say that ‘well, some people can afford it’.
“But not everybody. And that wouldn’t be fair. Clean water should be for everybody, not just those who can afford it.”
Yass (New South Wales) – Colour
2015/19 Yass Colour 83 Hazen Units (max) Feb 2019
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Yass – New South Wales – Hardness
2018: Yass (New South Wales) – Hardness 286.6mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
17 January 2019 Boil Water Alert –E. coli bacteria contamination
Residents of Coolah are advised that E. coli bacteria has been detected in the town water supply.
Warrumbungle Shire Council regularly monitors drinking water to ensure its safety and recent testing has detected E. colibacteria in the Coolah water supply.
Detection of E. coli bacteria means that drinking water in the Coolah water supply is unsafe.
E. coli in drinking water shows that the water may be contaminated with faeces and organisms that may cause gastrointestinal illness. …
Brown tap water across Western NSW deserves state of emergency response
The NSW Government must supply and distribute free bottled water across the growing number of rural towns unable to drink their tap water.
It’s only fair government step in to help those enduring third world living conditions, due to government draining of lakesand mismanagement of our river system.
Brown water crisis
The small town of Billmari, near Cowra, is one of several towns where potable water is too dangerous to drink.
Ironically, Billmari is an Aboriginal word meaning ‘plenty of water’.
Menindee now has plenty ofbrown water coming out of taps. Menindee is where locals begged governments not to drain their lake in 2017, because the lake supplies their drinking water. Governments ignored them.
Residents in Wilcannia, Hay, Cootamundra, Ganmain, Coolah and Yass have also reported foul-tasting tap water to us.
Walgett has faced such severe drinking water restrictions that generous Dubbo residents have supplied them with bottled water via a Facebook campaign.
But why are drought-stricken neighbouring towns carrying the can for the governments who caused this mess?
Last weekend, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian went to Coogee Beach. She pledged millions of dollars to clean the beach swimming water there.
It’s now time for Gladys to come out west to help those who can’t even drink the tap water.
State of emergency time
If an oil spill poisoned a river, killing one million fish and robbing towns of their drinking water, the NSW Government would declare a state of emergency.
This would force government agencies to get out to affected areas; and help the many residents who can’t afford expensive bottled water.
Under NSW state law, the Premier can call a state of emergency due to: fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, accident, epidemic or warlike action which endangers people’s health.
There are several state government departments that administer water, employing thousands of bureaucrats.
Why not get them out to Menindee, Walgett, Billmari and other affected towns, to set up water hubs and to distribute free bottled water?
It’s the least the government could do.
Royal Commission next
We’ve both traveled to third world countries like Papua New Guinea, India and Cambodia. Not being able to drink the tap water was the biggest difference between those places and Australia.
That’s why it’s disgraceful we’ve let things come to this in our regional towns.
Clean drinking water should be the number one priority of any civilised nation, ranking well above Sydney stadiums and beaches.
This is why we urgently need a federal royal commission into how governments manage our rivers.
A royal commission will expose the government’s bad decisions on draining lakes; and flush out wealthy National Party donors who rort the system.
But Royal Commissions can take years, and we have a crisis now.
The state government needs to get cracking. It’s time for immediate state of emergency-style provision of free bottled water to towns like Menindee, Walgett and Billmari, where tap water is too dangerous to drink.
Roy Butler is the SFF candidate for Barwon. Helen Dalton is the SFF candidate for Murray.
April – July 2018 – Coolah (New South Wales) – Chlorine
10/7/18: Coolah (New South Wales) – Chlorine 5.07mg/L
10/4/18: Coolah (New South Wales) – Chlorine 5.41mg/L
Free chlorine levels exceeding the health guideline value of 5.0 mg/L were measured on 8 December 2014 from the chlorine sampling point for the Athelstane Range Reservoir B. In situ free chlorine levels within the reservoir were measured at 5.4 and 8.8 mg/L. The short-lived spikes in free chlorine residual recorded during the event were caused by a power outage as a result of a recent thunderstorm and lightning strike which led to dosing occurring due to a faulty inlet flow meter.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Coolah – (New South Wales) – Hardness
15/3/22: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 450.9mg/L
28/9/21: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 489.6mg/L
10/3/21: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 466.6mg/L
15/9/20: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 421.3mg/L
9/3/20: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 400.5mg/L
26/3/19: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 395.2mg/L
25/9/18: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 474.3mg/L
22/5/18: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 437.7mg/L
25/9/17: Coolah (New South Wales) – Hardness 446.3mg/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
The NSW Government must supply and distribute free bottled water across the growing number of rural towns unable to drink their tap water.
It’s only fair government step in to help those enduring third world living conditions, due to government draining of lakesand mismanagement of our river system.
Brown water crisis
The small town of Billmari, near Cowra, is one of several towns where potable water is too dangerous to drink.
Ironically, Billmari is an Aboriginal word meaning ‘plenty of water’.
Menindee now has plenty ofbrown water coming out of taps. Menindee is where locals begged governments not to drain their lake in 2017, because the lake supplies their drinking water. Governments ignored them.
Residents in Wilcannia, Hay, Cootamundra, Ganmain, Coolah and Yass have also reported foul-tasting tap water to us.
Walgett has faced such severe drinking water restrictions that generous Dubbo residents have supplied them with bottled water via a Facebook campaign.
But why are drought-stricken neighbouring towns carrying the can for the governments who caused this mess?
Last weekend, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian went to Coogee Beach. She pledged millions of dollars to clean the beach swimming water there.
It’s now time for Gladys to come out west to help those who can’t even drink the tap water.
State of emergency time
If an oil spill poisoned a river, killing one million fish and robbing towns of their drinking water, the NSW Government would declare a state of emergency.
This would force government agencies to get out to affected areas; and help the many residents who can’t afford expensive bottled water.
Under NSW state law, the Premier can call a state of emergency due to: fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, accident, epidemic or warlike action which endangers people’s health.
There are several state government departments that administer water, employing thousands of bureaucrats.
Why not get them out to Menindee, Walgett, Billmari and other affected towns, to set up water hubs and to distribute free bottled water?
It’s the least the government could do.
Royal Commission next
We’ve both traveled to third world countries like Papua New Guinea, India and Cambodia. Not being able to drink the tap water was the biggest difference between those places and Australia.
That’s why it’s disgraceful we’ve let things come to this in our regional towns.
Clean drinking water should be the number one priority of any civilised nation, ranking well above Sydney stadiums and beaches.
This is why we urgently need a federal royal commission into how governments manage our rivers.
A royal commission will expose the government’s bad decisions on draining lakes; and flush out wealthy National Party donors who rort the system.
But Royal Commissions can take years, and we have a crisis now.
The state government needs to get cracking. It’s time for immediate state of emergency-style provision of free bottled water to towns like Menindee, Walgett and Billmari, where tap water is too dangerous to drink.
Roy Butler is the SFF candidate for Barwon. Helen Dalton is the SFF candidate for Murray.
The NSW Government must supply and distribute free bottled water across the growing number of rural towns unable to drink their tap water.
It’s only fair government step in to help those enduring third world living conditions, due to government draining of lakesand mismanagement of our river system.
Brown water crisis
The small town of Billmari, near Cowra, is one of several towns where potable water is too dangerous to drink.
Ironically, Billmari is an Aboriginal word meaning ‘plenty of water’.
Menindee now has plenty ofbrown water coming out of taps. Menindee is where locals begged governments not to drain their lake in 2017, because the lake supplies their drinking water. Governments ignored them.
Residents in Wilcannia, Hay, Cootamundra, Ganmain, Coolah and Yass have also reported foul-tasting tap water to us.
Walgett has faced such severe drinking water restrictions that generous Dubbo residents have supplied them with bottled water via a Facebook campaign.
But why are drought-stricken neighbouring towns carrying the can for the governments who caused this mess?
Last weekend, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian went to Coogee Beach. She pledged millions of dollars to clean the beach swimming water there.
It’s now time for Gladys to come out west to help those who can’t even drink the tap water.
State of emergency time
If an oil spill poisoned a river, killing one million fish and robbing towns of their drinking water, the NSW Government would declare a state of emergency.
This would force government agencies to get out to affected areas; and help the many residents who can’t afford expensive bottled water.
Under NSW state law, the Premier can call a state of emergency due to: fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, accident, epidemic or warlike action which endangers people’s health.
There are several state government departments that administer water, employing thousands of bureaucrats.
Why not get them out to Menindee, Walgett, Billmari and other affected towns, to set up water hubs and to distribute free bottled water?
It’s the least the government could do.
Royal Commission next
We’ve both traveled to third world countries like Papua New Guinea, India and Cambodia. Not being able to drink the tap water was the biggest difference between those places and Australia.
That’s why it’s disgraceful we’ve let things come to this in our regional towns.
Clean drinking water should be the number one priority of any civilised nation, ranking well above Sydney stadiums and beaches.
This is why we urgently need a federal royal commission into how governments manage our rivers.
A royal commission will expose the government’s bad decisions on draining lakes; and flush out wealthy National Party donors who rort the system.
But Royal Commissions can take years, and we have a crisis now.
The state government needs to get cracking. It’s time for immediate state of emergency-style provision of free bottled water to towns like Menindee, Walgett and Billmari, where tap water is too dangerous to drink.
Roy Butler is the SFF candidate for Barwon. Helen Dalton is the SFF candidate for Murray.
The NSW Government must supply and distribute free bottled water across the growing number of rural towns unable to drink their tap water.
It’s only fair government step in to help those enduring third world living conditions, due to government draining of lakesand mismanagement of our river system.
Brown water crisis
The small town of Billmari, near Cowra, is one of several towns where potable water is too dangerous to drink.
Ironically, Billmari is an Aboriginal word meaning ‘plenty of water’.
Menindee now has plenty ofbrown water coming out of taps. Menindee is where locals begged governments not to drain their lake in 2017, because the lake supplies their drinking water. Governments ignored them.
Residents in Wilcannia, Hay, Cootamundra, Ganmain, Coolah and Yass have also reported foul-tasting tap water to us.
Walgett has faced such severe drinking water restrictions that generous Dubbo residents have supplied them with bottled water via a Facebook campaign.
But why are drought-stricken neighbouring towns carrying the can for the governments who caused this mess?
Last weekend, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian went to Coogee Beach. She pledged millions of dollars to clean the beach swimming water there.
It’s now time for Gladys to come out west to help those who can’t even drink the tap water.
State of emergency time
If an oil spill poisoned a river, killing one million fish and robbing towns of their drinking water, the NSW Government would declare a state of emergency.
This would force government agencies to get out to affected areas; and help the many residents who can’t afford expensive bottled water.
Under NSW state law, the Premier can call a state of emergency due to: fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, accident, epidemic or warlike action which endangers people’s health.
There are several state government departments that administer water, employing thousands of bureaucrats.
Why not get them out to Menindee, Walgett, Billmari and other affected towns, to set up water hubs and to distribute free bottled water?
It’s the least the government could do.
Royal Commission next
We’ve both traveled to third world countries like Papua New Guinea, India and Cambodia. Not being able to drink the tap water was the biggest difference between those places and Australia.
That’s why it’s disgraceful we’ve let things come to this in our regional towns.
Clean drinking water should be the number one priority of any civilised nation, ranking well above Sydney stadiums and beaches.
This is why we urgently need a federal royal commission into how governments manage our rivers.
A royal commission will expose the government’s bad decisions on draining lakes; and flush out wealthy National Party donors who rort the system.
But Royal Commissions can take years, and we have a crisis now.
The state government needs to get cracking. It’s time for immediate state of emergency-style provision of free bottled water to towns like Menindee, Walgett and Billmari, where tap water is too dangerous to drink.
Roy Butler is the SFF candidate for Barwon. Helen Dalton is the SFF candidate for Murray.
Outback NSW residents are frustrated, fed up and worried about their drinking water after the biggest fish kill on the Darling-Baaka River in memory.
Millions of native fish have washed up dead on the river at Menindee and downstream towards Pooncarie, in the state’s far west, since late last month as floodwaters receded and the region was hit by repeated heatwaves.
The mass fish kills were likely caused by low levels of dissolved oxygen in the water, known as hypoxic blackwater, which has been exacerbated by the extreme conditions.
After dead fish blanketed the water at the main weir late last week, police reassured residents their drinking supply was safe.
Emergency services and state government water authorities held a community meeting in Menindee on Tuesday morning to provide a possible timeline to remove and dispose of the animals and address concerns about water quality.
“There is no need for community concern as the initial assessment has determined multiple viable solutions to maintain water supply to the Menindee township and surrounds,” NSW Police said in a statement ahead of the meeting.
“The frequency of water quality testing has been increased to ensure it continues to meet the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.”
Menindee local Graeme McCrabb said many felt the meeting provided no real answers.
“The only thing that was reiterated and certainly not taken with any faith from the community is that the water supply is safe and secure,” he told AAP.
“That is certainly not being accepted by the community at all.”
The Central Darling Shire council has been carting water to households that rely on the river for several days.
He said the community was doubtful about attempts to remove the fish because the water has become a “soupy mess”.
“As soon as you touch those fish now, they just break up. It’s a difficult one.”
Other residents told AAP they were too frustrated to attend the meeting after the 2019 fish deaths, and were skeptical about water management on the lower Darling-Baaka.
“There is anger there and frustration,” Mr McCrabb said.
“People have no faith that the government has the ability to respond or has any interest to respond.”
Federal and state agencies are working out of an Emergency Operations Centre set up in the outback town on Sunday.
NSW Police Assistant Commissioner Brett Greentree on Monday said the agencies’ first priority was protecting the water supply, but the clean-up effort could take some time.
“I can only appreciate and acknowledge the hardship,” Mr Greentree said.
“The smell is something for the poor residents to put up with and it’s really difficult after they’ve gone through a period of drought and then the floods.
“They’ve had a really tough time.”
Off-the-scale clean up as rotting fish threaten water
Having endured droughts and floods, residents in outback NSW are dealing with the stench and clean up of millions of rotting fish as authorities work to protect drinking water.
Emergency crews face a logistical nightmare removing millions of dead fish from the Darling-Baaka River, after the worst mass death in living memory.
Huge clusters of dead fish have been found at Menindee and Pooncarie, in the state’s far west, as floodwaters receded and the region was hit by repeated heatwaves in recent weeks.
The fish kills were likely caused by low levels of dissolved oxygen in the water, known as blackwater hypoxia, exacerbated by the extreme conditions.
Authorities believe it is worse than the mass deaths during the height of the drought in 2019, when water flows were low or non-existent.
An Emergency Operations Centre was set up at Menindee on Saturday and specialist contractors will be sent in to remove as many fish as possible, police said.
Assistant Commissioner Brett Greentree said it was a priority to protect the water supply at Menindee and other communities along the river.
“I’m not making promises that all the millions of fish will be removed by contractors because that is a logistical nightmare and I need to be honest with the community of Menindee,” Mr Greentree told reporters in Dubbo on Monday.
Monitoring shows the drinking supply through the Menindee treatment plant is high quality.
The Central Darling Shire Council is carting water to households who rely on river water.
It will also arrange the disposal of the fish, approved by the NSW Environmental Protection Agency.
Mr Greentree hoped the removal operation could start as soon as possible.
“The Menindee community have had a real tough time of late when you look at the floods and now this as well,” he said.
“So it’s really important that we mobilise efficiently and as quickly as we can to do what we can to resolve this, but this is really a challenge against Mother Nature in many ways.”
A community town hall meeting will be held in Menindee on Tuesday to keep residents updated.
“I can only appreciate and acknowledge the hardship,” Mr Greentree said.
“The smell is something for the poor residents to put up with and it’s really difficult after they’ve gone through a period of drought and then the floods.
“They’ve had a really tough time.
“That is one of the reasons why we want to move this into gear very quickly, and get some respite for the town as soon as we can.
“Unfortunately, we need to be really honest. It’s not a quick fix, where we can do it in 24 hours.”
State and federal agencies are continuing to monitor risks to fish health.
Timing, size and location of water releases from the Menindee Lakes into the lower Darling-Baaka River may be used to maintain the water quality.
Toxic blooms and local fury: what’s going on at Menindee Lakes?
Despite months of a new river management strategy, the Menindee community is seething – and their water is turning green
This is the township of Menindee’s drinking water supply.
The pool behind weir 32 that provides water to the township of 600 turned green in January and a thick slime now covers up to a third of its surface.
WaterNSW has declared a red alert for toxic blue-green algae blooms at the weir, and for the lower Darling/Baarka for the 400km to its junction with the Murray.
The warnings advise people to avoid contact with the water. While the town has some filtration on its town water, it still smells bad. Those on properties and in small towns further south cannot safely drink the water, and there are warnings to monitor livestock.
This is despite the north-west of New South Wales receiving 14% more rain than average in 2020 and twice as much as 2018 and 2019 combined.
Locals like Graeme McCrabb say the Darling is now in as poor shape as it was in 2018, the year before the massive fish kills in January 2019.
“If we don’t get a major rain event in the next few months we’re looking at the same conditions next summer that led to the disaster,” McCrabb says.
So why, with good rainfall in the north, is Menindee facing yet another ecological crisis?
That’s what the Menindee community wants to know.
So angry are the local farmers, Indigenous population and the town that they have once again pulled stumps on any discussion with the NSW government over the Menindee Lakes plan, which is designed to return more water to the environment.
The stakeholder group representing 23 different local interests say they won’t be talking to the government until they can be provided with one of the basic necessities of life: safe drinking water.
“The issue here is critical water needs,” says the chairman of the stakeholder group, Terry Smith, who is also chair of the Pastoralists’ Association of the Western Darling.
“We keep getting told that this issue is out of the scope of the discussions about the Menindee Lakes project, but this is the most important issue to the community.”
The Menindee Lakes project, at a potential cost of somewhere between $800m to $1.2bn, is the NSW government’s marquee project to make water savings for the environment by using water more efficiently. The project, which would change the size and configuration of the lakes to make them smaller and deeper, aims to create water savings of 106GL a year through reducing evaporation.
But if NSW fails to deliver on its share of water savings by 2024, the state will likely face more buybacks of entitlements from agriculture. This would almost certainly mean that farmers in the rich cotton growing areas to the north would be required to reduce irrigation – a move that is strongly opposed by some of the most powerful farming interests in the country.
New water resource plans designed to address water shortages in the Darling have been operating in NSW since the middle of last year. So why are communities like Menindee still facing dire shortages?
The new water plans are designed to address many of the shortcomings of the old plans, including protecting low flows in the river from being pumped for irrigation further upstream from Menindee, and protecting the first flushes of the river after rain.
But seven months into the new rules, the Menindee residents say they don’t go far enough. McCrabb and other locals believe the real problem still lies in the government’s failure to address over-extraction by irrigators upstream and unregulated harvesting of floodplain water, which has caused a major drop in the amount of water actually reaching the river.
Flows are barely reaching Menindee and the lakes have not been allowed to recharge – they are at 18.3%, meaning that there will be little scope to send water down the river next summer if it remains dry.
So the community is boycotting discussions on the big ticket item that the NSW government wants: their support for the Menindee Lakes project.
“Until the issue of equitable water share for the entire Darling/Baarka is addressed, the proposed changes at Menindee of the [Menindee Lakes] project will have no support from the Lower Darling community. The community quite rightly expect the base needs of the river to be covered first,” Smith wrote in a letter to the local press.
Smith tells the Guardian: “There’s little point in building the Mendindee Lakes project if the lakes are only likely to fill intermittently – perhaps as infrequently as every 15 years.
“Why build the project at Menindee when you can’t run the river? There is no benefit for the community, for the culture, for the economy. People at Menindee just want their water back.”
The government’s first proposal for managing the lakes has now been abandoned after it became clear the planned construction of a new regulator – a structure to control flows – at the junction of Menindee and Cawndilla lakes would destroy one of the most important Indigenous sites in NSW.
The new plan, involving adding four metres in depth to the two northern lakes by building banks around them, is controversial for other reasons. There are questions of flooding of farmland, the cost, Indigenous sites and the fact that the government still hasn’t factored in the last 20 years of data on inflows.
McCrabb says it is also expensive. The cost of the water saved by the project will be $20,000 a megalitre, compared to the market value of an A class licence pre-drought of $1,500 a megalitre.
But for now, the question is the water supply.
“If this debacle was happening on the other side of the hills, there would be an outcry,” Smith says.
A spokesperson for the NSW water minister, Melinda Pavey, said the government would soon consult with communities on the western regional water strategy and was “open to speaking further about water quality in the lakes”.
“We have already written to the advisory group indicating this will be the best forum to discuss connectivity and water quality,” the spokesperson said.
“WaterNSW is currently forecasting between 13,000ML and 20,000ML will flow over the weir at Wilcannia by the end of February, with as much as 10,000ML flowing into the Menindee Lakes.”
February 2019 – Menindee (New South Wales) – Blue Green Algae
We explore the link between NSW waterways and a toxin that might trigger MND.
Professor Dominic Rowe of Macquarie Neurology says, “From 1986 to 2016, there’s been a 250% increase in Motor Neurone Disease as a cause of death in Australia and that can only be environmental…”
Research overseas has linked the neurotoxin BMAA, a by-product of blue-green algae, to MND. This toxin was recently discovered in Lake Wyangan in NSW.
It’s also been found in a number of other drought-affected New South Wales waterways, including along the Darling River.
Professor Rowe says, “If we can understand what in the environment triggers Motor Neurone Disease, conceivably we could prevent [it] from even occurring.”
Tim Trembath, an MND sufferer, lives at Lake Cargelligo, which is 140-kilometers north of Griffith. He’s spent a lot of time at this lake, where there’s been an outbreak of blue-green algae.
Tim says, “Up until about 2010, the lake water was the water that was used for drinking and washing in the town.”
The disease has stripped Tim of his ability to ride his motorbike and he needs regular care. Two of his friends in the 1500-resident town have died from MND.
“Anyone who lives in this town has probably swum in the lake, and the lake has algal blooms in it nearly every summer.”
While it’s easy to assume there’s a link between these waterways and MND, Professor Rowe says, “It is highly unlikely that there’s going to be one specific environmental trigger, it’s likely to be a combination of factors.”
Menindee locals living with ‘disgusting’, ‘filthy’ tap water that smells like ‘a sewer’
If your tap water was the colour of mud, would you drink it?
Menindee locals in far-west New South Wales say that is what they are being forced to endure.
“This is the disgusting water coming out of our tap today,” Taya Biggs wrote in the Menindee Region Community Group on the Darling River Facebook group.
“They expect us to wash, drink, cook and wash our clothes in the filthy water.”
Another person wrote: “My bathroom water is green. Spewed in the shower again from the stench”.
Ms Biggs’s post has been shared almost 3,000 times.
Her mother Daphne Biggs said while they “don’t have any choice” but to shower in town water, they rely on rainwater for everything else although she expects that will only last another two months.
“The smell [of the tap water] is absolutely disgusting,” she said, adding that no-one in her house had drunk the water for two years.
Locals say water makes them sick
Life-long Menindee local Dorothy Stephens said the water — supplied by Essential Water — has made her sick.
“Right up until Christmas I was still boiling that water and drinking it and then I worked out I was getting diarrhoea from it, so we stopped,” she said.
She is not alone. Ngiyampaa elder Beryl Carmichael has lived in Menindee for 84 years.
“I drink rain water, otherwise I’d be running to the toilet,” she said.
Essential Water to blame says tourism body
President of the Menindee Tourism Association Rob Gregory said the water coming out of the taps was “pretty brown”.
“Prior to the first fish kill, our water had a smell to it which was sort of like a dammy, old, muddy smell that wasn’t too bad,” he said.
“But then straight after the first kill, it started to smell like sewer.”
He said he was “disappointed” with Essential Water.
“Even after the first kill, [they] didn’t even put a media release out to say that the water’s okay,” Mr Gregory said.
“We’re paying top dollar for that water and what are we getting? Second grade, third grade quality; it’s not good enough.”
Essential Water stands their ground
Despite locals’ concerns, Essential Water is defending the quality of water being supplied to the town.
“We’ve received only two water complaints of coloured water at Menindee,” head of operations John Coffey said.
He said both visits resulted in “minor flushing” and said water samples taken at the sites “complied with the requirements of the Australian Drinking Water guidelines”.
“So it was certainly an isolated incident,” Mr Coffey said.
He said Essential Water sourced water from the Darling River, Lake Copi Hollow, and the Menindee common bore.
Mr Coffey refused to say what triggered Essential Water’s water source switch from the Darling River to Lake Copi Hollow in December 2018.
“The choice of raw water supply to the Menindee Treatment Plant is based on raw water quality at the time,” he said.
He said anyone with complaints of poor water quality should contact Essential Water on 13 23 91.
Brown tap water across Western NSW deserves state of emergency response
The NSW Government must supply and distribute free bottled water across the growing number of rural towns unable to drink their tap water.
It’s only fair government step in to help those enduring third world living conditions, due to government draining of lakesand mismanagement of our river system.
Brown water crisis
The small town of Billmari, near Cowra, is one of several towns where potable water is too dangerous to drink.
Ironically, Billmari is an Aboriginal word meaning ‘plenty of water’.
Menindee now has plenty ofbrown water coming out of taps. Menindee is where locals begged governments not to drain their lake in 2017, because the lake supplies their drinking water. Governments ignored them.
Residents in Wilcannia, Hay, Cootamundra, Ganmain, Coolah and Yass have also reported foul-tasting tap water to us.
Walgett has faced such severe drinking water restrictions that generous Dubbo residents have supplied them with bottled water via a Facebook campaign.
But why are drought-stricken neighbouring towns carrying the can for the governments who caused this mess?
Last weekend, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian went to Coogee Beach. She pledged millions of dollars to clean the beach swimming water there.
It’s now time for Gladys to come out west to help those who can’t even drink the tap water.
State of emergency time
If an oil spill poisoned a river, killing one million fish and robbing towns of their drinking water, the NSW Government would declare a state of emergency.
This would force government agencies to get out to affected areas; and help the many residents who can’t afford expensive bottled water.
Under NSW state law, the Premier can call a state of emergency due to: fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, accident, epidemic or warlike action which endangers people’s health.
There are several state government departments that administer water, employing thousands of bureaucrats.
Why not get them out to Menindee, Walgett, Billmari and other affected towns, to set up water hubs and to distribute free bottled water?
It’s the least the government could do.
Royal Commission next
We’ve both traveled to third world countries like Papua New Guinea, India and Cambodia. Not being able to drink the tap water was the biggest difference between those places and Australia.
That’s why it’s disgraceful we’ve let things come to this in our regional towns.
Clean drinking water should be the number one priority of any civilised nation, ranking well above Sydney stadiums and beaches.
This is why we urgently need a federal royal commission into how governments manage our rivers.
A royal commission will expose the government’s bad decisions on draining lakes; and flush out wealthy National Party donors who rort the system.
But Royal Commissions can take years, and we have a crisis now.
The state government needs to get cracking. It’s time for immediate state of emergency-style provision of free bottled water to towns like Menindee, Walgett and Billmari, where tap water is too dangerous to drink.
Roy Butler is the SFF candidate for Barwon. Helen Dalton is the SFF candidate for Murray.
Motor neurone disease link to algae toxin exposure a developing path of research, scientists say
March 28 2019: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-28/scientists-say-link-between-algae-and-mnd-needs-further-look/10943826
Menindee resident John Brereton has a theory about what caused his wife, Pam, to develop motor neurone disease (MND), and it is a path that scientists are investigating.
Key points:
Research suggests toxin in blue-green algae blooms may increase neurological diseases
Incidence of MND in Griffith is seven times higher than the national average
CEO of MND NSW is not convinced of link between blue-green algae and MND
Up to 2,000 Australians are estimated to have MND, but diagnosis is painstakingly difficult because researchers are not yet sure how the disease is triggered.
“I couldn’t really say for certain, but I do believe the blue-green algae has got something to do with it,” Mr Brereton said.
Ms Brereton grew up in Ballarat, near Lake Wendouree, which experiences algal blooms like many waterways in Australia.
John and Pam Brereton also lived in the Darling River town of Menindee for 19 years and used river water for cleaning and bathing, but drank filtered rainwater.
“The algae has killed the fish. It’s killing everything, actually,” Mr Brereton said.
Fears in Menindee reflect those of people in Griffith in central NSW, where the incidence of MND is seven times higher than the national average, according to recent research.
The common link between the towns is proximity to a water source that is frequently beset by outbreaks of blue-green algae.
However, the CEO of the Motor Neurone Disease Association of NSW (MND NSW) Graham Opie is not convinced.
“There are so many theories. The fact is we just don’t know what causes or triggers MND,” he said.
Can BMAA cause motor neurone disease?
Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, are the oldest living organisms on the planet precisely because they are good at out-competing others by releasing toxins.
What’s known about link between BMAA and MND:
BMAA is a neurotoxin found in cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae
BMAA affects the neurological function of the brain by causing protein misfolding
Protein misfolding is a key characteristic of neurological disease
Scientists say while there is a link between BMAA and MND, more research is needed to determine the risk associated with exposure
One of these is the neurotoxin BMAA.
Dr Ken Rodgers from the Neurotoxin Research Group at the University of Technology Sydney specialises in environmental neurotoxins and how they interfere with the body’s functions.
“I think people should be worried. I get contacted regularly by people who have MND and have had obvious exposure to cyanobacteria,” Dr Rodgers said.
Cyanobacteria are always present in rivers and lakes, but only bloom into blue-green algae when conditions are favourable.
Low water flows, high temperatures, and nutrient build-up from agricultural run-off are all factors that contribute to algal blooms.
“I’m not trying to be alarmist,” Dr Rodgers said.
“Algal blooms are dangerous, but they’re being monitored by professionals so just follow the guidelines.”
Alerts issued by water authorities stipulate that people should not swim in, drink from, or eat seafood from algae-affected waterways.
Dr Rodgers said governments should be doing more than that to mitigate risk.
“You’ve got to try to take away the risk, even if it’s not going to affect everybody,” he said.
“Governments have got to start looking after the waterways, keep flows going, stop allowing big companies to dump chemicals into the waterways.”
“We’ve had fairly constant numbers, and those numbers haven’t changed in the 13 years I’ve been with the organisation,” he said.
Dr Rodgers said that just because toxins may be present in the water, it did not mean people exposed to blue-green algae would get sick.
“Someone who smokes from 16 to when they’re 100 years old doesn’t disprove that smoking causes cancer, it just shows that some people have resistance genes, and some have susceptibility genes,” he said.
“It’s the same story with exposure to environmental toxins.”
But he believed “there’s no question that BMAA can cause neurological disease”.
“The question is — how big is the risk and what makes you susceptible?” Dr Rodgers said.
He is calling on governments to invest more research dollars into the environmental factors that may trigger MND.
“What we’re trying to do is understand how the toxin affects us, and from there we could try to work out what the susceptibility genes might be,” he said.
Mr Brereton of Menindee said he believed he would never know exactly why his wife got sick, but hoped that some day the cause would become clear.
“She was a fit woman all her life, worked, never had any illnesses, and then all of a sudden — bang,” he said.
“I just hope that no-one has to put up with it. It’s a very cruel disease.”
Rural residents living outside Menindee are being asked to sign a waiver to have potable water delivered to their homes.
In summer the river water at Menindee killed millions of fish.
Now, as the drought drags on through winter, residents outside of the remote NSW town are being forced to sign a document stating they won’t sue authorities if the drinking water delivered to their homes makes them sick.
Rob McBride and his family live on the sheep property Tolarno Station on the banks of the Darling River some 50 kilometres south of Menindee.
For years the family sourced their drinking water from the river and rainwater tanks, but now they are reliant on water delivered by charities, or they buy potable water from the local council.
Central Darling Shire Council will only deliver water to Tolarno Station, however, if the McBrides sign a document guaranteeing they won’t sue the council or the state government if they become sick.
“It’s blackmail and you can’t do that,” Mr Mcbride told AAP.
“If you don’t sign that paperwork then you don’t get any water supplied to your house and your family. We’ve got a gun to our head.”
Mr McBride is worried blue-green algae in the town’s main water sources could be linked to the “soul-destroying” motor neurone disease.
Menindee’s town water, and the water delivered to nearby rural residents, is sourced by Essential Water from Lake Copi Hollow which at present has an amber alert for blue-green algae.
Central Darling Shire Council’s website says its potable water is safe to drink.
The council is responsible for carting the water to the rural residents. It says those who supply the potable water are required to provide the NSW health department with regular samples to ensure it meets Australian guidelines.
Essential Water insists the water it supplies is treated and tested to ensure it complies.
But, according to Macquarie University neuroscientist Gilles Guillemin, some cyanotoxins – which are produced by blue-green algae – are so small they can’t be filtered out.
Professor Guillemin has been working since 2012 on developing technology to help quantify the toxins and identify exactly what it is about in blue-green algae in the water that triggers MND.
“I wouldn’t drink the water, if I go there (to Menindee), I would drink bottled water,” he told AAP.
But council general manager Greg Hill says residents are only asked to sign the waiver because the potable water is delivered “into a tank we have no control over”.
The tanks on most properties previously held raw or untreated water from sources like the Darling River, which means they could be contaminated, Mr Hill told AAP.
“For this reason council asks that waiver be signed as we have no control over the maintenance and the cleanness of the storage tanks,” he said in a statement.
Retiree Dick Arnold lives “a stone’s throw” from Menindee and was also required to sign a waiver before potable water was delivered to his home.
That was the case even though he recently received a brand new water tank paid for by the state government.
“We certainly don’t drink it,” he told AAP. Instead, the water is used for washing.
Mr Arnold says he’s never been asked to sign such a document before.
“It does make you wonder what’s in the water. You can’t trust anyone these days.”
Both Mr McBride and Mr Arnold are concerned the water may contain traces of blue-green algae blooms which are also present in the Darling River and were blamed for the catastrophic mass fish kills in December and January.
“MND is a soul-destroying, debilitative and murderous disease,” Mr McBride said.
“And the government gives us a disclaimer which effectively relinquishes them of all responsibility for future generations.”
Menindee (New South Wales) – Trihalomethanes
1/1/19 – 31/3/19: Menindee (New South Wales) Trihalomethanes – 247μg/L (Highest detection), Total 134μg/L (av. detection)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Menindee – New South Wales – Total Dissolved Solids
1/1/19 – 31/3/19: Menindee (New South Wales) Total Dissolved Solids – 1206 μS/cm (Highest detection), Total 1098 μS/cm (av. detection)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Dec 28, 2018: A Melbourne home owner has said she was told to take precautions each morning before drinking from her taps after lead was discovered in her water at levels more than 10 times the Australian guidelines.
The South Yarra resident recently arranged to have the water exiting her meter tested by her supplier after the water had sat there overnight.
Joanna, 51, who did not want to be identified, said tests came back with a lead reading of more than 10 times the allowable limit of 10 micrograms a litre, and remained slightly higher than the limit following a period of flushing.
The case highlights a little-publicised recommendation for Australians to run taps used for drinking for 30 seconds each morning before use, and controversy around standards that still allow lead to be used in plumbing products.
Experts say that while Australia has some of the safest drinking water in the world, the public is being let down by rules that allow brass plumbing products to contain up to 4.5 per cent lead, potentially contaminating water as it enters the home.
Anas Ghadouani, a University of Western Australia professor of environmental engineering, said it was time that Australia followed in the footsteps of countries such as Japan and the United States by transitioning to lead-free or low-lead plumbing.
“The World Health Organisation says … there is no safe level for lead,” he said.
Joanna said she was prompted to contact South East Water to get the testing done after reading media coverage about the need to flush.
She was initially told her water meter would be replaced, but was then instead advised to fill up a big jug of water each evening to use the next morning for drinking, and to shower in the morning to help flush the water supply.
She said she was also flushing her drinking taps, but was unsure how long was necessary given the flushed water also came back over the guidelines for lead.
“Now I’m flushing for maybe three or four minutes,” she said.
It is not yet clear what caused the elevated levels of lead reaching her home, and additional testing is under way.
Environmental scientist Dr Paul Harvey said a possible source was the water meter.
“Having the lead-brass meters is commonplace around Australia, and depending on the quality of manufacturing and how old they are, they can have that particulate that comes off,” he said.
Dr Harvey, an adjunct fellow with Macquarie University, said it was much less likely that the lead would have come through the water supply itself, and even if that was the case, it was probably a localised case of lead being dislodged through construction work or something similar.
“But at the end of the day, it all comes down to the same headline … that we have lead in the water, and the lead in the water shouldn’t be there, and we need to find a way of getting rid of it,” he said.
The World Health Organisation warns that lead is a cumulative toxin that affects multiple body systems and is particularly harmful to young children, causing reduced IQ in same cases.
Australia’s Environmental Health Standing Committee recommends various measures for people to reduce their intake, including that households flush cold water taps for drinking and cooking for about 30 seconds in the morning.
It also recommends people flush for up to three minutes after even longer periods of non-use, such as going on holidays, and avoid using hot water taps for drinking.
Australia’s chief medical officer, Professor Brendan Murphy, said the guideline on lead in drinking water was set at a very conservative level so it could be sure to protect the most vulnerable.
However, he said there was “no evidence of adverse effects on human health from the consumption of lead in drinking water in Australia”.
South East Water spokesman Terry Schubach said the company tested more than 8000 samples from its network each year – and all samples tested in 2017-2018 returned results for lead at below detectable levels.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2017/18 – Waterford Park (Victoria) – Lead 0.009mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Rushworth (Victoria) Iron
2017/18: Rushworth (Victoria) – Iron 0.48mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2018/19 Rushworth (Vic) – Lead
2018/19 – Rushworth (Vic) – Lead 0.008mg/L (max) 0.002mg/L (mean)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2022/23: Rushworth (Victoria) Chloromethane 0.004 (mg/L?/ug/L?) not specified (Goulburn Valley Water DWQR 2022/23
No ADWG
Chloromethane is produced in industry, but the it also occurs naturally, and most of the
chloromethane that is released to the environment (estimated at up to 99%) comes from natural sources. Chloromethane is always present in the air at very low levels. Most of the naturally occurring chloromethane comes from chemical reactions that occur in the oceans or from chemical reactions that occur when materials like grass, wood, charcoal, and coal are burned. It is also released to the air as a product of some plants or from rotting wood.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Katunga (Victoria) Total Dissolved Solids
2013/14: Katunga (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids/Electrical conductivity 1100mg/L (μS/cm)
2014/15: Katunga (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids/Electrical conductivity 1200mg/L (μS/cm)
2015/16: Katunga (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids/Electrical conductivity 1200mg/L (μS/cm)
2016/17: Katunga (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids/Electrical conductivity 1200mg/L (μS/cm)
2017/18: Katunga (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids/Electrical conductivity 1400mg/L (μS/cm)
2022/23: Katunga (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids/Electrical conductivity 1400mg/L (μS/cm) (max). 38 non-complying samples. (From the 1st April 2017, EC monitoring at Katunga and Pyalong was increased to weekly due to historical high levels in EC. In addition, weekly monitoring at Upper Delatite occurs because of risk of salt from artificial snow melt)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L
“The raw water at Katamatite is sourced from the Murray Valley Channel irrigation system which is managed by Goulburn Murray Water. Normal operation of this channel system involves the
shutdown over the winter period with no water available, GVW is required to fill the storages prior to the shutdown of the irrigation system and is reliant upon storage until irrigation water becomes available. At the time of the exceedance the raw water levels in the onsite storages were low due to this shutdown period and sourcing water over winter from the storage. The low raw water storage levels resulted in a higher concentration of dissolved organic matter within the storage, which increased the chlorine demand. Shortly after the exceedance GVW were able to access water in the irrigations system, improving the water quality and reducing the levels of organic matter present. All subsequent resamples were below the health limit.”
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Katamatite (Victoria) Nickel
2020/21: Katamatite (Victoria) Nickel 0.02mg/L
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Rutherglen (Victoria) – Colour
2010/11: True Colour 40HU
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
14/01/11:– < 24hr Devenish E.coli :1 org/100mL Investigations could not identify any source. Chlorine residual was present and resample was clear.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Devenish (Victoria) – Turbidity
2013/14: Devenish Turbidity 9.1NTU
2015/16 Devenish Turbidity 5.3NTU
2017/18 – Devenish (Victoria) – Turbidity 9.9NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Boil Water Alert 6th July 2018 Lightning Ridge Water Supply System
E. coli Bacteria Contamination
Detection of E. coli bacteria mean that drinking water in the Lightning Ridge Water Supply is unsafe.
E. coli in drinking water shows that the water may be contaminated with faeces and organisms that may cause gastrointestinal illness.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Saltwater solution for drought towns battling brackish drinking water
Bourke resident Fleur Thompson says she’s battled a few health issues this year, including hypertension and kidney stones.
So when she found out her outback town’s emergency drinking water supply was high in sodium she was worried.
“I got some tests done and my kidneys were not functioning at full capacity,” she said.
“The one doctor who I did get to speak to about it was really concerned.
“He was concerned about the rest of town having to deal with it as well.”
Bourke’s drinking water comes from the Darling River.
Last summer it got so low the town had to start using a backup supply of bore water from the Great Artesian Basin, which had elevated sodium levels.
The same thing happened at Walgett, about 200 kilometres away, when the Barwon and Namoi Rivers there dried up.
Community concern
The Walgett Aboriginal Medical Service and the Dharriwaa Elders Group have both expressed concerns about the potential effect on community health.
Chairman of the Elders Group Clem Dodd said the bore water was not healthy.
“You got to have water. I don’t care who you are — animal or person, you can’t go without water,” he said.
“But too much salt in it [is not good] … you got to get good water.”
The salt in the Bourke and Walgett bore water meets the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines but it exceeds the aesthetic (taste) limit.
There is no health-based sodium limit in those guidelines.
Health authorities contacted local doctors about potential health implications for patients with kidney disease, high blood pressure, heart failure, or who are pregnant.
‘Too much salt’
Jacqui Webster, a salt reduction expert from the George Institute for Global Health, has been working with the Walgett community on improving health outcomes there.
She said, while most salt in the average diet came from food, high salt levels in drinking water was a genuine health concern in these communities.
“Too much salt in the diet increases blood pressure, and increased blood pressure is one of the key contributors to premature death from heart disease and stroke in Australia,” Dr Webster said.
“You’ve got a high proportion of the community who are Aboriginal people, and we know Aboriginal communities already suffer disproportionately from high rates of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and kidney disease.
“It’s really important that poor diets — including the high sodium content of the water — are addressed.”
Dr Webster said sodium could also make the drinking water taste unpleasant and people may turn to sugary drinks instead, which could compound health issues.
Brief reprieve
There is currently some water back in the weirs at Walgett and Bourke.
But that water is only expected to last until the end of the year at most.
Bourke Shire Council general manager Ross Earl said if it did not rain the town would have to switch back to a mix of river and bore water.
“We were extremely hopeful that this time we’d be going back to river water full time,” he said.
“But clearly we’re preparing for the worst-case scenario — yet again.”
Heeding the call, but at what cost?
The New South Wales Government has now heeded the concerns of residents who are worried about sodium levels in their bore water.
It has committed several million dollars to remove salt from the emergency bore water supplies in Bourke and Walgett using desalination technology called reverse osmosis.
Deputy Premier John Barilaro said the Government’s first priority was water security but acknowledged there were water quality issues in some areas.
“We’re now moving away from surface water to groundwater and that, of course, is about making sure we don’t run out of water,” he said.
“We know that there are high levels of sodium and that is of concern.
“We know there are no general health impacts from that … but we do advise that for people with any medical condition to go see a local GP.
“But we want to look at long term resolving this issue and that’s why we’re prepared to put the investment in.
“We hope to have this all up and ready to go by September–October this year.”
The director of the Global Water Institute at the University of New South Wales, Greg Leslie, has also been working with the Walgett community and he said the new technology was a worthwhile outlay.
“Treating the water to remove salt is a standard water treatment procedure,” he said.
“In other parts of the country — Western Australia, the Northern Territory, South Australia — communities that are on bore water would use reverse osmosis technology routinely to take salt out.
“The advantage of doing it in a town like Walgett is that you already have 90 per cent of the infrastructure needed for those systems, and the reverse osmosis is just bolted on to the end.”
Professor Leslie said reverse osmosis units could be switched on and off as required.
But Bourke’s Ross Earl said even if the NSW Government foots the bill for the reverse osmosis technology, there would be additional running costs for his council.
“I agree you probably can’t put a cost on someone’s health, but we’d really need to get the costings to see what it would cost,” Mr Earl said.
Walgett Shire Council general manager Greg Ingham said he welcomed any initiative to improve the bore water quality in town.
But he also expressed concerns about potential additional costs.
“We don’t want council and our community to be burdened with ongoing operational costs to run desalination equipment,” he said.
An issue far and wide
Bourke and Walgett are not the only towns on Great Artesian Basin bore water.
Many places in New South Wales and Queensland have been on this bore water for years, such as Moree, Cumborah, Burren Junction, Barcaldine, Birdsville, and Winton.
While the quality of that water varies substantially between locations, there are town water supplies with sodium levels similar to that of Bourke and Walgett.
Lightning Ridge is an oft-quoted example.
Tourists flock to the town’s hot bore baths, which are famed for their potentially therapeutic benefits. But drinking that water is a whole other issue.
There has been no significant public outcry in Lightning Ridge over its drinking water supply and it is not slated to receive a reverse osmosis plant.
But Dr Webster said the health issue remained the same.
“I’ve been contacted by a member of the community in Lightning Ridge who is concerned about the salt levels in the water,” she said.
“I think it’s important that we are considering the long-term implications of high sodium levels in the water — not just in Walgett but in all of the communities where this is relevant.”
NSW Regional Town Water Supply Coordinator James McTavish said, while the concerns of some residents in Walgett and Bourke were valid, the water was safe.
“I’d stress that the water meets Australian drinking water guidelines for safety, but there is an issue associated with the detectability of sodium,” he said.
Desalination has often been more commonly associated with coastal cities, where drinking water supplies are topped up with treated seawater during droughts.
But as parched towns dig for water, it is looming as a bigger issue for inland populations too.
Fleur Thompson in Bourke hopes the local council will embrace reverse osmosis technology and use it to take the sodium out of the town’s bore water.
“The cost for maintaining these systems may be high but the potential health and human cost is higher,” she said.
Aboriginal elders in western New South Wales say they will provide free filtered drinking water for their remote community after repeated failures by the state and local government to do so.
NSW Water Minister Rose Jackson visited Walgett in April to announce a return to water from the Namoi River by May 3, as part of a “short-term” solution to fix the town’s long-term water quality issues.
Less than four days afterward it switched back to high-sodium bore water after the water treatment plant again failed to process the poor-quality river water.
Additionally, council was forced to turn off its reverse osmosis machine as it could not handle the sheer volume of salty brine water it was producing as a waste by-product.
Dharriwaa Elders Group treasurer Ricky Townsend said they would take matters into their own hands and install a reverse osmosis machine in the main street to provide free chilled and filtered water for locals.
“We all know the drinking water isn’t safe — and the survey we did in our community confirmed that people are having to buy drinking water,” Mr Townsend said.
“None of this work would have been needed if the NSW government and Walgett Shire Council fixed the town’s reverse osmosis system.”
The machine is being paid for out of the group’s existing funds, with a plumbing company from Newcastle donating its services to install it.
Walgett Shire Council did not respond to questions from the ABC about what caused the problems.
In a statement, acting general manager Hugh Percy said they were working hard to get the town back on river water.
“As previously advised, this is a complex process that takes time to ensure the water treatment and supply are fully stable,” he said.
“DPE Water is continuing to provide experienced water operators on the ground who are working with Walgett council staff and overseeing the transition to help deliver a stable system in the coming weeks.”
Mr Townsend said they wanted a more long-term solution to the water insecurity their community had faced for years.
The Dharriwaa Elders Group has sent Ms Jackson a list of demands to stop the river from being drained and to improve the health of the system.
“Flood plain harvesting has to stop — we want to see enforcement of extraction limits, bigger fines for water theft, and our rivers returned to proper health,” Mr Townsend.
“Our rivers are dying. We need governments to act.”
Ms Jackson said the transition from bore water to river water had been delayed due to parts arriving later than expected.
She said the treatment plant had switched back to river water, which would begin flushing bore water out of the system.
“It also takes time for bore water to be flushed out of the water network, but the taste of the water should have already begun to improve,” Ms Jackson said.
“The good news is that the treatment process is now working well, and the Department of Planning and Environment and Sydney Water have been on-site over the past few weeks to monitor the process and carry out water quality testing.”
Walgett drinking water quality, river system concerns aired by distressed residents
Walgett mother Kylie McKenzie had no idea that the water coming out of her taps was slowly destroying her son Xander’s immune system.
New South Wales Water Minister Rose Jackson met Ms McKenzie and other residents on Friday to hear their concerns about water quality in the town.
Following the meeting, Ms Jackson announced that Walgett’s water supply would be switched from the bore back to the river by Wednesday as a “short-term” measure.
Aboriginal elders are demanding a more permanent solution to ensure the long-term health of the river system and water security for the community.
The town’s water treatment plant has failed to handle turbidity and blue-green algae in the Namoi River, meaning the town has had to rely on poor-quality bore water for the past five years.
The high sodium levels in the bore water have been deemed unsafe for people with chronic illnesses such as Ms McKenzie’s son, who has brain deformations and eats through a tube.
“In summer he was constantly dehydrated and we didn’t know why,” Ms McKenzie said.
“Now we know — we were just pumping sodium through him.
“We’re trying to keep him hydrated, thinking we were doing the right thing. We weren’t.”
‘We’re river people’
Aboriginal leaders from the Dharriwaa Elders Group have asked the minister for sweeping reforms to protect the river.
Those demands include enforceable extraction limits, higher penalties for water theft, a priority for end-of-system flows, an annual independent audit of water management, and a maximum of 20 milligrams per litre of sodium for Walgett’s drinking water.
Vanessa Hickey of the Dharriwaa Elders Group broke down in tears while describing the condition of the river to Ms Jackson.
Ms Hickey said she could remember swimming in the Barwon and Namoi Rivers as a small girl, back when the system was full of yabbies.
“Us Aboriginal people, especially out Walgett way, we’re river people,” she said.
“Our responsibility is to care for our country and care for our totems.
“We, the Aboriginal people, have done nothing to do this, and now we’re suffering.
“You’ve got dams, you’ve cotton farms, you’ve got coal seam gas, you’ve got floodplain harvesting — how are our rivers going to recover when they keep on taking?”
Ms Jackson did not make an announcement at the meeting meeting that would address the long-term systemic problems facing the river system.
She said there was an appetite for sweeping water reform in the new government, including enforceable limits on water extraction.
“Our river systems are very sick and that is the result of decades of inaction,” Ms Jackson said.
“We do want a reset on how our rivers are managed.
“We do want a reset on NSW’s commitments under the Murray-Darling Basin Plan.”
The Australian town where water insecurity is felt more than some communities in Bangladesh
Imagine living in a first-world country and being too frightened to drink tap water.
This is the reality for Indigenous residents in the north-west New South Wales town of Walgett, a community that has been living off emergency bore water for roughly five years.
“We can’t drink the water out the tap,” Aboriginal mum Lorraine Murray told 7.30.
“It’s filth. It stinks.”
A water security survey of 250 First Nations people living in Walgett found 44 per cent reported being worried about getting safe drinking water — a higher rate of water insecurity than in Bangladesh and similar to First Nations communities in Canada.
After years of drought and water shortages, Walgett relies on water pumped from the Great Artesian Basin, an ancient underground aquifer.
Walgett’s bore water has a slimier feel, and a slightly salty and more bitter taste than other tap water because the Great Artesian Basin water contains different dissolved salts.
“It’s like when you’ve got moisturiser on your hands, [it’s] slippery,” Ms Murray explained.
“It makes me so angry with the people that’s in control of the water.”
The NSW Minister for Water Rose Jackson told 7.30 in a statement: “Some assistance is now being provided currently by the NSW Government to Walgett Shire Council to support them to have the necessary infrastructure and technical expertise to resolve these challenges.”
While the minister said she was concerned, she links Walgett’s water insecurity to “overall declining river health — exacerbated by the impacts of droughts and flooding events”, and that the NSW Government is committed to the full implementation of the Murray-Darling Basin Plan.
Health risks
It’s not just taste and aesthetic issues worrying Walgett residents.
Previous tests of the drinking water in Walgett have shown the sodium levels exceed Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
There are no health standards for safe sodium levels in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines — only palatability guidelines — but experts say high sodium levels can be a health risk for people with chronic illnesses.
The UNSW Water Research Lab has analysed official government test results provided to them of Walgett’s bore water over a four-year period up until July last year.
“The salt levels that are analysed are about 15 times higher than what’s recommended for people with kidney failure and renal problems,” UNSW Water Research Lab’s Dr Martin Andersen told 7.30.
Dr Andersen also added that people with diabetes and heart issues should avoid drinking salty water for extended periods.
“For a healthy adult person, it’s probably okay to drink,” he said.
“But if you do have pre-existing medical conditions in terms of high blood pressure or kidney failure, you shouldn’t be drinking those levels of salt in your drinking water.”
Ms Murray’s 7-year-old son Dale lives with a kidney condition called nephrotic syndrome. If he doesn’t get better, he could need a kidney transplant.
The mum of 10 has endured traumatic nights dealing with her little boy’s illness.
“When Dale has relapses, he cannot see out of his eyes; his belly is like a balloon,” she described of an ordeal where Dale had to be airlifted to a Sydney hospital.
“It’s like he’s got a belly on his back, everything just swells. His one leg would be the size of my two legs.”
Dale is on a doctor-ordered reduced-salt diet, Lorraine said, adding that weekly grocery shops including special salt-reduced items could peak at $900.
“They [doctors] told me Dale can’t drink bore water,” Ms Murray told 7.30.
“There’s more sodium than the normal water. So Dale is not allowed to drink tap water at all. So he’s got to drink water from the shops.”
While many of us take access to clean drinking water at the turn of a tap for granted, Lorraine spends around $50 a week on bottled water to drink, wash food and cook with.
“It is expensive but we got no choice,” Ms Murray said.
“The condition Dale’s got, he can die from it.”
Running out of money, water, and patience
Walgett’s community survey questions weretaken from the Household Water Security Index Scale (HWISE), a tool created by Northwestern University anthropologist Sera Young to quantify global water insecurity.
Based on the scale, the findings were compared to other communities both domestically and globally for water and food security.
One of the residents surveyed was Gamilaraay woman Mary Kennedy, who needs to avoid salty food and drink to keep her blood pressure in check.
“I’ve got a lot of chronic issues and diabetes,” Ms Kennedy said.
“My heart problems too and liver problems.”
Due to concerns about water quality, four in five Indigenous Walgett residents had to rely on bought or donated bottled water in the last year.
Walgett is located about 700 kilometres from Sydney, so the town’s fresh produce can be more expensive than large regional centres due to transport costs.
Some fortnights, Ms Kennedy worries she will run out of money and run out of bottled drinking water.
“I would never drink it [bore water]; I can’t chance it because of my health conditions,” she said.
“Being on disability pension, I worry from one fortnight to the next because I’m buying high [cost] food … and on top of that I worry about the water.”
Going to bed thirsty
Gamilaraay woman Trish Tonkin was trained to collect the data for Walgett’s community water survey, which asked questions ranging from “Did you ever worry about not having enough food or water to meet your needs?” to “Did you ever have to go to bed hungry/thirsty?”
“Another thing we heard from people in the survey [was] that they were going to bed thirsty,” said Ms Tonkin, who grew up on the banks of the Namoi River.
“It’s shocking to even think that people are still going hungry and thirsty.”
More than a third of Aboriginal Walgett residents have gone to bed thirsty at least one month in the past year, according to the survey.
“This day and age it shouldn’t be happening,” Ms Tonkin said.
She lists fear of what’s potentially in the bore water and a distrust in authorities as possible reasons Indigenous Walgett residents experience water insecurity so severely.
‘We want action now’
A mobile desalination facility, known as the Reverse Osmosis machine, was brought to Walgett in May 2020 in response to community concerns about the extremely salty bore water, despite assurances from health authorities it was safe to drink.
The machine was meant to remove the high levels of sodium from Walgett’s bore water but stopped operating after several months due to logistical and waste issues.
“They ran out of storage space for the reject water,” Dr Martin Andersen explained.
“The salty water that they’re getting rid of, they put it into storage ponds and those pumps ran full and they had to turn the plant off again.”
Despite recent rainfall, the community also hasn’t been able to use river water to supply the town with drinking water — on April 6, WaterNSW issued an amber alert for blue-green algae in the Namoi River at Walgett.
“Due to algae composition, stock and domestic users should consider alternate water sources,” the report stated.
7.30 sought interviews with Walgett Shire Council Mayor, Urban Manager, and General Manager and sent detailed questions but did not receive a response.
NSW Health told 7.30 in a statement it is supporting Walgett Shire Council to return to river water as quickly as possible and that Walgett’s bore water is safe according to the National Health and Medical Research Council Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines have not established a health guideline value [limit] for sodium,” the department said.
“The [sodium] contribution from water is less than from food. However, excessive sodium intake, usually from food, may be a risk for some people’s health. Most of the sodium taken into people’s bodies comes from salt in the food we eat.”
“We’re seeing the river becoming increasingly unreliable in terms of quantities,” Dr Andersen said.
“[What] we’re seeing is a decrease in the water quality as well. When there is water in the river, it has lots of algae growing in it and lots of turbidity, and that also poses a lot of complications for water treatment, for drinking water.”
Walgett residents are calling for a multi-agency independent task force to investigate and tackle water insecurity — and they want local Aboriginal organisations and expert voices included.
“We want action now,” Ms Tonkin said.
“Not tomorrow. Not the next day. We need it now.”
2019 August – Walgett (NSW) – Turbidity
PUBLIC NOTICE Boil Water Alert 31st August 2019
Walgett Water Supply System High Turbidity
Walgett Shire Council wishes to advise all residents of Walgett that due to a technical issue there is high turbidity in the town water supply resulting in a boiled water alert.
Walgett continues to feel the impact from the ongoing drought in New South Wales after being hit with yet another challenge in accessing clean drinking
An Aboriginal community in north-western New South Wales which has been tackling poor water quality for two years and pleading with the government for action to be taken, has now been told to boil its water before use.
As widespread droughts throughout the state continue, last week the Walgett Shire Council (WSC) issued an emergency alert that warned residents their water supply needed to be boiled before use due to a technical issue at a nearby water treatment plant.
Chief executive of the Walgett Local Aboriginal Land Council, Kelli Randell, told NITV News that “enough is enough”.
Ms Randell said community members have reported water coming out of their taps “the colour of mud” and that it leaving rashes on people who bathe in it.
The town of over 2000 residents has endured severe droughts for the past two years. Over that period, its usual water source – the Barwon and Namoi Rivers – have either run too low or dried up completely and as a result the community has regularly relied on bore water for its potable water supply.
The community have often reported their bore water – drawn from the Great Artesian Basin – to contain elevated sodium levels, leaving people with gastric, stomach aches and vomiting.
She said the community is “disappointed” and “concerned” that their rivers – a source that they could finally rely on again – was now unsafe to drink.
“Only having access to water with high sodium levels was one thing, but now having to boil the water due to turbidity risks, well, it’s just another blow to a community who is already struggling to survive,” she said.
Ms Randall said the WSC is doing everything they can to supply the community with clean drinking water.
She said construction for a water farm is set to begin with the aim of generating 30,000 litres of drinking water per week from hydro panels collecting water vapour from the air.
Additionally, WSC said it is looking into a mini desalination plant for Walgett to clean the water and make it safe for all community members to drink.
Greg Ingham, General manager for WSC, said he was unsure of what exactly caused the high turbidity.
“There may be several causations factors contributing to the high turbidity, such as uncontrolled land runoff, lack of ground vegetation cover, silting, etcetera,” he told NITV News.
“The extended drought conditions are not helping in this regard.”
In a public Facebook post, WSC said they were working quickly to fix the problem by flushing mains, monitoring the treatment plant 24 hours a day and collecting additional samples to monitor the water.
“Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the consumer’s tap” ADWG 2011
Community faces latest challenge in gaining access to clean drinking water
9/1/19: Walgett Shire Council regularly monitors the drinking water to ensure the supply of drinking water complies with the Australian Drinking Water Management Guidelines (ADWG). The sodium level is one of the measurements and has been found to be around 300 mg/L. There is no health based guideline value for sodium, but there is an aesthetic guideline of 180 mg/L.
4/3/19: Walgett Shire Council collected its monthly chemistry sample from the Walgett drinking water supply for testing by the NSW Health laboratory on the 20thFebruary 2019.Walgett Shire Council is closely monitoring the quality of the drinking water as it is currently drawn from a bore which has a higher mineral content.The February results show that the level of sodium in Walgett’s drinking water was 323 milligrams per litre (mg/L). The average level for all the samples of bore water tested so far is 301 mg/L.
Walgett has always been a river town, perched near the junction of the Barwon and the Namoi rivers.
But with the drought biting hard, the water from those rivers isn’t making it to this northern New South Wales town.
With nothing to pump from the local weir, Walgett is the latest town forced to go underground for water, a move that health experts say could have potentially serious health implications.
Many locals are worried the emergency supply of bore water is damaging their health.
Dharriwaa Elder, Thomas Morgan, said the water was no good for drinking.
“Too much salt in it,” he said. “The kids, my grandkids, they’re starting to spit it out, they don’t like it.”
Elder Rick Townsend lives near the water treatment plant.
“I get the smell of it every morning and it’s the foulest smell,” he said.
“I don’t drink it, not at all. I drink the water at the hospital, tank water. Or I’ll buy the water in the supermarkets.”
Another local, Chantelle Kennedy, said most people were avoiding the tap water. “Most of us go to IGA and buy packs of 24 bottles for $20. It’s dear,” she said.
“A lot of people have been buying fizzy drinks because of the water. Some of them come out and buy hot drinks, which is cheaper than buying water.”
Salt of the earth
The bore water is from the Great Artesian Basin, which provides water for many outback communities.
However, tests of the drinking water in Walgett have shown the sodium levels there exceed Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
Associate Professor Jacqui Webster, from the George Institute for Global Health, said the sodium levels were concerning.
“The sodium levels in the Walgett water supply are at 300 milligrams per litre and the Australian drinking water guidelines are 180 milligrams per litre, so that’s substantially higher,” she said.
Dr Webster said the guidelines for sodium in drinking water were based on taste rather than health.
But she said high sodium levels did pose serious health risks, particularly for people with underlying health problems.
“The Australian guidelines do state that medical practitioners who are concerned about people with hypertension should advise that people drink water with no more than 20 milligrams of sodium per litre,” she said.
“The Walgett drinking water is about 15 times that amount … so we need to be thinking about action to address that.”
Chief Executive of the Walgett Aboriginal Medical Service, Christine Corby, said high blood pressure, heart disease, kidney disease and diabetes were common health issues.
“Unfortunately in our community and particularly Aboriginal people, they have a high incidence of chronic disease,” she said.
“I believe we are going to have an increase in chronic disease here, particularly from the water consumption,” she said.
“In my life here in Walgett for 40 odd years, it’s the first time I’ve never drank straight from the tap,” she said.
“I just worry for people who have to drink straight from the tap.”
Dr Webster said those who avoided salty drinking water by drinking alternatives such as soft drinks were solving one problem and creating another.
“If they are drinking the water it’s potentially a problem but if they are substituting it with other things that is also a cause for concern,” she said.
“Indigenous communities are suffering from greater incidences of diabetes, obesity and hypertension,” she said.
“In general people get a disproportionate amount of salt from processed foods in communities where there is limited access to fresh foods, so compounding that with sodium from the water supply is a problem, and it’s something we need to be looking into.”
Community veggie garden under threat
The Walgett Aboriginal Medical Service runs a community garden which provides fresh produce for its chronic-disease clients.
Christine Corby said the garden was crucial to these people.
“It’s part of good health, it’s part of healthy living, it’s part of prevention and treatment of chronic disease,” she said.
For now, the garden has an exemption from the town’s level-5 water restrictions, but Ms Corby said she was not sure how long that would last. And even with the exemption, the bore water on offer may not be suitable for gardens.
“The research that we’ve received from the University of New South Wales has indicated the long-term effects, the quality of the plants, they will deteriorate, the nutrients will be reduced so it doesn’t work,” she said.
“In the long term we can’t sustain the garden.”
‘It’s going to keep everyone alive’
Walgett’s mayor, Manuel Martinez, said the shire commissioned the town bore to provide water security in the event of shortages just like this one.
“Two years ago, we had the foresight to sink a bore. We’re drought-proofing our whole shire,” Cr Martinez said.
“This is Australia. We’re in a drought and until the drought breaks, that’s the only water supply we’ve got.”
“It’s going to keep everyone alive, and that’s what we’re here to do,” he said.
“The sodium level is a bit high, higher than normal, higher than preferred, but it’s within the guidelines and it’s the same level it is with other bores.
“I’ve lived in Lightning Ridge for the last 32 years with only bore water. Most of outback Queensland is on the Artesian Basin.”
Cr Martinez said that as soon as there was water in the rivers again, Walgett would be back on river water — or at least on a mixture of river and bore water.
He said the bore water was a short-term emergency supply.
“I’m not doubting what they say, long-term effects of anything can be harmful, especially sodium or salt in the water system,” he said.
Many residents in Walgett believe it is not just the drought that is to blame for the dry rivers.
They say the waterways have not being managed properly and that too much water is being taken out upstream.
Chairman of the Walgett Aboriginal Medical Service, Bill Kennedy, said it was hard when people saw so much water in the rivers not far up the road.
“We’ve lived through droughts before but there was always some water, and some running water,” he said.
“I guess progress has changed all that with irrigators, farming, and especially cotton further up the river.
“I was driving to Tamworth, Newcastle last week and there’s water in the rivers further up at Gunnedah, Narrabri, Wee Waa.”
The mayor agreed, and said it was frustrating to see so much water upstream in both rivers.
Cr Martinez said the last two water releases from Lake Keepit were supposed to flow down as far as Walgett but they never made it.
“It’s beyond council’s control … we can only apply to push, to get another release, and try and get water to make it down to us.”
He said there was another water release from Lake Keepit on its way and hopefully this one will make it all the way to Walgett.
Spirits at low ebb
Many people in this community were deeply saddened by the state of the two rivers here.
Elder Rick Townsend says it was the worst dry spell anyone could remember.
“It’s a pretty bad state of affairs,” he said.
“It’s the worst I’ve ever seen it in all my life that I’ve lived here.”
For countless generations, the rivers have been a place to meet, fish and swim. But locals said at the moment that was simply not possible.
“There’s no fish or anything in the river any more,” says another Elder, Thomas Morgan.
“People used to come down here and fish every day, catch heaps of fish and crayfish. [They would] come with their kids and spend a good day here with them and be happy, and now they can’t do that.”
For Clem Dodd, a spokesman for the Dharriwaa Elders Group, the implications for the community were dire.
“This place will be a ghost town before long,” he said.
“If there’s no water, everything’s going to die. There’ll be nothing here for people — they’ll all be moving out.”
Walgett’s water crisis: NSW considers options after ‘concerning’ sodium levels found
Berejiklian government may install desalination system for town’s bore water supply
The state government says it is considering options to help resolve the water crisis in the western New South Wales town of Walgett, including installing a desalination system for the town’s bore water supply.
The minister for primary industries and regional water, Niall Blair, has asked for “a full report” from water and public health officials this week, while locals are calling for a royal commission into the mismanagement of water in the Murray-Darling basin.
“We’re doing everything we can to support the shire,” Blair said. “We’re looking at the option of helping them take water from environmental flows upstream. We could extend a pipeline to take that water.”
“The sodium levels are concerning,” Webster said. “300mg a litre is much higher than the Australian drinking water guideline of 180mg/L, and this guideline is based on palatability, not health.
“No health-based guideline value is proposed for sodium. However, the guideline does state that ‘medical practitioners treating people with severe hypertension or congestive heart failure should be aware if the sodium concentration in the patient’s drinking water exceeds 20 mg/L.
“The sodium content of the Walgett tap water is 15 times this amount.”
Earlier this month, the town’s bore pump failed and there was no running water at all. Crowdfunding campaigns sprang up across NSW to send fresh water to Walgett.
The pump was repaired, and the bore water is back, but locals are losing patience.
“We appreciate the water that people are bringing us,” Dhariwaa elder Virginia Robinson said. “But it’s not the solution. We want to advocate for better water management. This is not the drought. It’s worse than that.
“It’s a triple whammy – drought, land clearing and climate change – that means no water.”
However, Blair insists drought is to blame.
“The problem is Lake Keepit is empty and farming communities have zero allocation, they’ve got no water either,” Blair said.
Lake Keepit is the dam upstream on the Namoi river and is currently at 0.5% capacity. Three weeks ago, a series of environmental releases were sent down the Namoi but “it took three releases, four actually, for any water to arrive because the river is so dry, it all soaked into the ground”, Blair said.
Construction to raise the town weir by a metre is going out to tender in coming weeks. This too is a source of tension in the town. At a meeting of several hundred locals last week, there was disagreement. Local Gamilaraay people would rather the weir was removed to allow a free flow of the river while other townspeople say a metre isn’t high enough to trap enough water for the town’s long-term sustainability.
“I know there’s an internal debate about height of the weir,” Blair said. “But the funding is to put another metre on. Anything higher would need us to redesign and reengineer the weir and would need further funding. The shire was adamant that funding for weir for extra 1m was adequate. The locals can debate that.”
Yuwalaraay man Ted Fields has been involved in cultural heritage management for decades and is calling for a royal commission in to the Murray-Darling basin.
“It’s not just climate change, it’s not just drought, there’s something else going on and more has to be done around the security of water,” he said. “This is a government-created problem. It’s a a flawed system and everyone knows the system is over-allocated.
“There’s nothing in the upper catchment. Keepit dam is empty but strangely enough I’ve been driving back and forth from Walgett to Tamworth for two years and there’s some beautiful cotton paddocks up near Narrabri being irrigated.
“We drove past a cotton farm this morning that had the sprinklers on, irrigating their crops, just outside Narrabri. And there’s thousands of acres, it’s not just there and there.
“There’s cultural despair in our people. The outlook for them is quite bleak. Walgett is a town where if you come back here and the river’s running, everyone is smiling and happy, you can feel it. So there’s despair and depression because the people who are supposed to be looking after us are looking after somebody else.”
Sodium Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Saltwater solution for drought towns battling brackish drinking water
Bourke resident Fleur Thompson says she’s battled a few health issues this year, including hypertension and kidney stones.
So when she found out her outback town’s emergency drinking water supply was high in sodium she was worried.
“I got some tests done and my kidneys were not functioning at full capacity,” she said.
“The one doctor who I did get to speak to about it was really concerned.
“He was concerned about the rest of town having to deal with it as well.”
Bourke’s drinking water comes from the Darling River.
Last summer it got so low the town had to start using a backup supply of bore water from the Great Artesian Basin, which had elevated sodium levels.
The same thing happened at Walgett, about 200 kilometres away, when the Barwon and Namoi Rivers there dried up.
Community concern
The Walgett Aboriginal Medical Service and the Dharriwaa Elders Group have both expressed concerns about the potential effect on community health.
Chairman of the Elders Group Clem Dodd said the bore water was not healthy.
“You got to have water. I don’t care who you are — animal or person, you can’t go without water,” he said.
“But too much salt in it [is not good] … you got to get good water.”
The salt in the Bourke and Walgett bore water meets the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines but it exceeds the aesthetic (taste) limit.
There is no health-based sodium limit in those guidelines.
Health authorities contacted local doctors about potential health implications for patients with kidney disease, high blood pressure, heart failure, or who are pregnant.
‘Too much salt’
Jacqui Webster, a salt reduction expert from the George Institute for Global Health, has been working with the Walgett community on improving health outcomes there.
She said, while most salt in the average diet came from food, high salt levels in drinking water was a genuine health concern in these communities.
“Too much salt in the diet increases blood pressure, and increased blood pressure is one of the key contributors to premature death from heart disease and stroke in Australia,” Dr Webster said.
“You’ve got a high proportion of the community who are Aboriginal people, and we know Aboriginal communities already suffer disproportionately from high rates of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and kidney disease.
“It’s really important that poor diets — including the high sodium content of the water — are addressed.”
Dr Webster said sodium could also make the drinking water taste unpleasant and people may turn to sugary drinks instead, which could compound health issues.
Brief reprieve
There is currently some water back in the weirs at Walgett and Bourke.
But that water is only expected to last until the end of the year at most.
Bourke Shire Council general manager Ross Earl said if it did not rain the town would have to switch back to a mix of river and bore water.
“We were extremely hopeful that this time we’d be going back to river water full time,” he said.
“But clearly we’re preparing for the worst-case scenario — yet again.”
Heeding the call, but at what cost?
The New South Wales Government has now heeded the concerns of residents who are worried about sodium levels in their bore water.
It has committed several million dollars to remove salt from the emergency bore water supplies in Bourke and Walgett using desalination technology called reverse osmosis.
Deputy Premier John Barilaro said the Government’s first priority was water security but acknowledged there were water quality issues in some areas.
“We’re now moving away from surface water to groundwater and that, of course, is about making sure we don’t run out of water,” he said.
“We know that there are high levels of sodium and that is of concern.
“We know there are no general health impacts from that … but we do advise that for people with any medical condition to go see a local GP.
“But we want to look at long term resolving this issue and that’s why we’re prepared to put the investment in.
“We hope to have this all up and ready to go by September–October this year.”
The director of the Global Water Institute at the University of New South Wales, Greg Leslie, has also been working with the Walgett community and he said the new technology was a worthwhile outlay.
“Treating the water to remove salt is a standard water treatment procedure,” he said.
“In other parts of the country — Western Australia, the Northern Territory, South Australia — communities that are on bore water would use reverse osmosis technology routinely to take salt out.
“The advantage of doing it in a town like Walgett is that you already have 90 per cent of the infrastructure needed for those systems, and the reverse osmosis is just bolted on to the end.”
Professor Leslie said reverse osmosis units could be switched on and off as required.
But Bourke’s Ross Earl said even if the NSW Government foots the bill for the reverse osmosis technology, there would be additional running costs for his council.
“I agree you probably can’t put a cost on someone’s health, but we’d really need to get the costings to see what it would cost,” Mr Earl said.
Walgett Shire Council general manager Greg Ingham said he welcomed any initiative to improve the bore water quality in town.
But he also expressed concerns about potential additional costs.
“We don’t want council and our community to be burdened with ongoing operational costs to run desalination equipment,” he said.
An issue far and wide
Bourke and Walgett are not the only towns on Great Artesian Basin bore water.
Many places in New South Wales and Queensland have been on this bore water for years, such as Moree, Cumborah, Burren Junction, Barcaldine, Birdsville, and Winton.
While the quality of that water varies substantially between locations, there are town water supplies with sodium levels similar to that of Bourke and Walgett.
Lightning Ridge is an oft-quoted example.
Tourists flock to the town’s hot bore baths, which are famed for their potentially therapeutic benefits. But drinking that water is a whole other issue.
There has been no significant public outcry in Lightning Ridge over its drinking water supply and it is not slated to receive a reverse osmosis plant.
But Dr Webster said the health issue remained the same.
“I’ve been contacted by a member of the community in Lightning Ridge who is concerned about the salt levels in the water,” she said.
“I think it’s important that we are considering the long-term implications of high sodium levels in the water — not just in Walgett but in all of the communities where this is relevant.”
NSW Regional Town Water Supply Coordinator James McTavish said, while the concerns of some residents in Walgett and Bourke were valid, the water was safe.
“I’d stress that the water meets Australian drinking water guidelines for safety, but there is an issue associated with the detectability of sodium,” he said.
Desalination has often been more commonly associated with coastal cities, where drinking water supplies are topped up with treated seawater during droughts.
But as parched towns dig for water, it is looming as a bigger issue for inland populations too.
Fleur Thompson in Bourke hopes the local council will embrace reverse osmosis technology and use it to take the sodium out of the town’s bore water.
“The cost for maintaining these systems may be high but the potential health and human cost is higher,” she said.
2012-17: Walgett (NSW) (Hardness)
Walgett Hardness 251mg/L (max level 2012-17)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2017/18- Cann River (Victoria) – Turbidity 10NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2017/18 – Korumburra (Victoria) – Manganese 0.5mg/L (high), av. 0.042mg/L
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
WA Indigenous community tries to rid water supply of unsafe level of uranium
Western Australian government refused to install water treatment plant due to size of Buttah Windee
An Aboriginal community in Western Australia is trying to raise money to fix its water supply, which contains unsafe levels of uranium.
Buttah Windee is a community of four houses about 3km from Meekatharra, a mining town that’s name means “place of little water” in the local Yamatji language.
It has 12 permanent residents and is supplied with bore water that is contaminated with uranium at more than twice the maximum safe level.
The WA government was notified of the uranium contamination in 2012 but refused to install a water treatment plant, saying the cost of doing so was “excessive given the small size of the community”.
Instead it put up signs warning residents not to drink or cook with the water and offered alternative public housing in Meekatharra itself.
Yamatji man Andrew Binsiar has been fighting to stay put. He has raised more than $10,000 through crowdfunding and an art auction and hopes to install a water filtration system to supply both the community and a new fish farm, which is part of a remote Indigenous employment program.
Binsiar discovered the uranium contamination nine years ago when all of the fish in his backyard koi pond died. He sent the water away to be tested and found that it had uranium levels of 0.04mg/L.
Health guidelines state that the maximum safe level is 0.017mg/L.
“I had it tested again this year, it’s still exactly the same,” Binsiar told Guardian Australia.
He installed a 9,000-litre tank on each house, which he fills with tap water from the town supply, to be used for drinking and cooking.
Uranium is a naturally occurring contaminant throughout parts of outback Australia.
The Department of Communities currently tests the water supply in 82 remote Aboriginal communities, and said it had seen a significant improvement in water quality since installing chlorine treatment units and reverse osmosis filtration systems in some communities.
It said it withdrew government support for Buttah Windee in 2013 after the community rejected an offer to establish a new public housing agreement in Meekatharra.
“The community elected to continue to reside at Buttah Windee and accept responsibility for the provision of housing and associated services to residents,” assistant director Greg Cash said. “The department ceased providing management services in 2013 and has had no formal relationship with the community since then.”
Binsiar said: “They came and sat on the veranda over here and said they were going to put a bulldozer through my house and put be back into [public housing provider] Homeswest.”
The current government opposed that policy but has adopted the remote community reform process started under Barnett which focuses investment on larger communities. It has also cited funding woes linked to the end of the remote housing agreement.
Binsiar said many remaining residents – Wadjarri people and his wife’s extended family – had lived there since it was established on Wadjarri land in 1993.
He said the community was a safer place to raise children, away from the drug and alcohol issues of Meekatharra.
Unless the community’s water supply can be fixed, the new aquaculture enterprise, which is part of the federal community development program, will have to close.
“If we get this thing to a stage and we can’t fix the water, all the young fellas are going to say, ‘Oh, we have to get this far and then stop again’,” Binsiar said. “I want to show people that Australia is truly a generous, generous mob of people. If you are willing to work, people will help.”
Buttah Windee in remote WA now has clean water thanks to solar hydropanel technology
A fight for safe drinking water at Buttah Windee in Western Australia has been a fight for the survival of the community, and a battle they are proud to have won on their own.
The remote Aboriginal community is 760 kilometres north-east of Perth on the outskirts of Meekatharra.
Almost a decade ago, resident Andrew Binsiar discovered the community’s water was tainted with naturally occurring uranium at more than twice the national health standard.
“I was actually very surprised,” he said.
“You’d imagine people would test the water for human consumption before people are allowed to drink it.”
Unable to drink the community’s tap water, most of the 50 people who lived at Buttah Windee left.
Too expensive to fix: State Government
But for Andrew Binsiar and his wife Janine, leaving the home where they had raised their five children was not an option.
He turned to the State Government for help, but was told fixing the water supply would be too expensive.
“They come out and put up ‘do not drink the water’ signs and that was their solution to it,” Mr Binsiar said.
The State Government offered to move the remaining residents into state housing in Meekatharra, but Mr Binsiar was apprehensive about exposing his family to the town’s social issues.
“We knocked them back … for the simple reason I’d already been there and done that. My life changed when I moved here,” he said.
“I wasn’t a very good father when I lived in Meeka.”
Solar hydropanels pull water from air
Almost a decade on, Buttah Windee is the first remote Aboriginal community in Australia to use innovative technology for its water supply.
Six solar hydropanels have been installed at the outback community, donated by a WA company who heard about the community’s plight and wanted to help out.
Director of Wilco Electrical Frank Mitchell said the units captured water from the air and produced up to 900 litres of water a month.
“Those fans, you can hear them whirring away, are just drawing in air all day, all around, and the piece of material inside collects … the moisture in the air, then condenses down into the tank where it’s got a pump straight out to the tap,” he said.
Mr Binsiar said it was a simple idea, which should be introduced to all remote communities.
“Water is a basic human right that everyone deserves,” he said.
“It could mean better health for your children … I would guarantee that most communities have bad water.”
Crowdfunding rallies support
The near decade-long battle for clean drinking water has not come easily for the Buttah Windee residents, with Mr Binsiar turning to crowdfunding as a last resort.
Word spread quickly when Mr Binsiar began the fundraising campaign last year, and people from across Australia donated nearly $26,000 in three months.
“It was a huge success. The Australian public have been awesome,” he said.
Mr Binsiar used the funds to install a reverse osmosis water treatment plant.
“Reverse osmosis takes out all the contaminants in the water … on the back end of it, it puts the minerals your body needs back into the water,” he said.
“They’ve given us a chance where no-one else would and we are really proud of what we have done here.”
Barramundi fish farm to boost employment
The two separate systems now supply the community with safe drinking water and enough water to run a small barramundi fish farm.
Mr Binsiar and several residents built the fish farm hoping it would eventually provide local employment and a potential source of income.
“Hopefully we can continue on and make it bigger and provide this region with fresh barramundi,” he said.
“I’d like to welcome everyone out to Buttah Windee and come and look at the work we do.”
9000 cells/mL of Microcyctis which is a potentially toxic type. Counts from an integrated reservoir sample were 24,000 cells/mL and from the outlet tower were 17000 cells/mL
Supply to Bendigo WTP shut-off and increased general surveillance at Heathcote WTP. Increased BGA testing until clear.
Possibly due to a faulty air valve – able to allow water to be sucked into reticulation system from pit. Air valve was replaced and re-sampling completed showing no further E.Coli
1/3/12 Taradale E.coli 3/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
8/3/07: Raywood (Victoria) 1org/100mL. (sample at tank outlet)
No known cause. Water carted from Bendigo. All possible bird entry points checked. Chlorine residuals checked and seem OK. Re-sampling completed showing no further E.Coli.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Raywood (Victoria) Lead
2015/16 Raywood Lead 0.008mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2006/07 – Rochester (Victoria) – Sulphate
2006/7: Rochester (Victoria) Sulphate 910mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sulfate in drinking water
should not exceed 250 mg/L. Purgative effects may occur if the concentration exceeds 500 mg/L.
Sulfate occurs naturally in a number of minerals, and is used commercially in the manufacture of numerous products including chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides and insecticides. Sulfate, including sulfuric acid, is also used in mining, pulping, and the metal and plating industries. Barium sulfate is used as a lubricant in drilling rigs for groundwater supply.
In the water industry, aluminium sulfate (alum) is used as a flocculant in water treatment, and copper sulfate is used for the control of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in water storages.
The highest concentrations reported in drinking water overseas are from groundwater supplies where the presence of sulfate is due to natural leaching from rocks. Concentrations have been reported up to 2200 mg/L. In source waters, concentrations are typically less than 100 mg/L.
The taste threshold for sulfate is in the range 250–500 mg/L.” ADWG 2011
2007/10 – Rochester (Victoria) – Turbidity
2007/8 Rochester Turbidity 13 NTU
2009/10 Rochester Turbidity 16 NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
June 2021 – Trentham (Victoria) – WTP Power Supply Cut
As a consequence of severe weather conditions that affected most of the state on the evening of 9 June 2021, the mains power supply to the Trentham WTP was interrupted between the night of 9 June 2021 and 13 June 2021, resulting in the WTP being offline for a significant
period of time. Given the falling tree risk, access to the WTP was also restricted by Emergency Services.
Access to the Trentham WTP was gained on the afternoon of 10 June 2021, and the WTP was brought back online using the onsite generator, until power was restored.The WTP functioned without any issues. However, the water demand was higher than the plant’s production causing the water level in the TWS tank to drop significantly. It was suspected that the higher than
usual water demand was caused by a burst water main. Considering the low water level in the TWS tank, and the suspected burst main, there was a concern regarding the safety of the
drinking water being supplied.Therefore, as a precaution, a “do not drink” advisory was issued, in consultation with DH.
The burst water main was identified and repaired, and the affected distribution network was flushed. Water samples were collected and tested for relevant parameters.
Based on information on the operation of the Trentham WTP, water quality test results,
distribution network pressure monitoring, and the identification and isolation of the burst water
main, the “do not drink” advisory was lifted, in consultation with DH, on the evening of 12 June 2021.
Guideline: Based on health considerations, the concentration of formaldehyde in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Formaldehyde may be present in drinking water through ozonation of naturally occurring humic material, contamination by accidental spills, or deposition from the atmosphere. Typical concentrations in air are probably in the low parts-per-billion range. Overseas, formaldehyde has been detected in ozonated drinking water at concentrations up to 0.03 mg/L.
Formaldehyde is used industrially in the wood, paper and textile industries. It is also used in the production of a number of chemicals and for the preservation of biological material. It is occasionally used as a disinfectant, sometimes to disinfect water filters. Other sources of exposure include cigarette smoke and food. Formaldehyde is present in almost all common foods, and adult dietary intake is estimated at 11 mg/day. Drinking water would contribute less than 10% of total intake.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
No data are available on the concentrations of formaldehyde in Australian drinking waters
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guideline THM’s 0.25ug/L
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Piangil – Victoria – Cyanide
2022/23: Piangil (Victoria) 0.077mg/L (highest level) (96.25% of Australian Guideline)
Based on health considerations, the concentration of cyanide in drinking water should not
exceed 0.08 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Cyanide can be present in drinking water through the contamination of source water, or through the natural decomposition of some plants that synthesise cyanoglycosides. Some microorganisms, such as the cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans and the bacterium Chromobacterium violaceum, produce free cyanide. In uncontaminated water sources, free cyanide concentrations are usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Sodium cyanide is used in the extraction of gold and silver from low-grade ores. It is also used in the electroplating, steel and chemical industries. Some foods can contain quite high concentrations of cyanide. Green almonds and improperly treated cassava are of particular concern.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
In major Australian reticulated supplies cyanide concentrations range up to 0.05 mg/L, with typical concentrations usually less than 0.02 mg/L.
TREATMENT OF DRINKING WATER
There are no published reports on methods for the removal of cyanide from drinking water. Chlorine gas or hypochlorite will react with cyanide to form cyanate. Ozone is also an effective oxidant.
HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
Cyanide is highly toxic. It is rapidly absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and metabolised to thiocyanate. In humans, long-term consumption of improperly prepared cassava in the tropics has been linked with effects on the thyroid gland and particularly the nervous system. Cyanide may deplete vitamin B12 and result in a deficiency that can cause goitre and cretinism. People most at risk are those with a nutritionally inadequate diet…. ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
16/10/10–17/10/10 Wodonga LL1 Dirty Water – elevated turbidity in reticulation (~13NTU)
Heavy rainfall within the catchment resulted in significant turbidity levels, which coincided
with changes to process configuration that led to blocked filters and subsequent elevated turbidity in drinking water. Response was rapid, which included significant flushing of water mains, as well as shutting down of pump stations, which isolated the turbid water to localised sections of the reticulation. Extensive monitoring was undertaken. Longer term actions included implementation of more rapid automated plant shutdown, stricter protocols when introducing process changes as well as improved infrastructure flexibility to run non compliant water to waste.
2010/11: Wodonga (low level) Turbidity 15NTU
2011/12: Wodonga (low level) Turbidity 10NTU
2013/14: Wodonga (low level) Turbidity 8NTU
2014/15: Wodonga (low level) Turbidity 18NTU
2016/17 Wodonga (high level) Turbidity 5.8NTU
2019/20 Wodonga (low level) Turbidity 62NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Wodonga – Victoria – Iron
2015/16: Wodonga (low level) Iron 0.61mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2020: Wodonga (Victoria) – Taste & Odour
Murray River Taste and Odour Event
Some towns in North East Water’s region supplied from the Murray system were affected by a taste and odour event from Australia Day in January through to March 2020. The taste and odour event was caused by naturally occurring taste and odour compound known as geosmin. This organic compound has a very strong, earthy taste and odour that is unpleasant. The compound can be produced by blue-green algae, bacteria and sometimes protozoa, and can be smelled at very low concentrations (around 10 ng/L). The compounds are generally present in drinking water but below noticeable levels. Geosmin can cause objectionable taste and odour in drinking water, but is an aesthetic issue only, with the water remaining safe to drink. In late January 2020, an algae bloom occurred in Lake Hume that produced extremely high concentrations of geosmin. The dominant algae species was Dolichospermum c.f. crassum, a known geosmin producer. This bloom subsequently spread downstream to Wodonga, Wahgunyah and Yarrawonga offtakes. This taste and odour event eventually spread much further down the Murray River and affected water utilities on both sides of the Victorian and NSW border.
Traditional treatment processes do not fully remove geosmin and instead powdered activated carbon (PAC) is dosed to adsorb the compound before removal via filtration. All of North East Water’s Murray system towns have this process in place, however, the concentrations of geosmin in the source water were so high that regular dose rates were unable to fully remove the compound from the treated drinking water. North East Water’s Yarrawonga supply experienced the highest concentrations of geosmin, peaking at 1,800 ng/L (see Table 3-27 for full results). This is the highest concentration ever recorded by North East Water. This resulted in a high rate of customer complaints relating to the taste and odour of water in localities supplied by Wodonga, Wahgunyah and Yarrawonga systems. The Corporation implemented customer communication via social media while the Operations teams were busy upgrading PAC dosing systems to achieve higher dose rates. North East Water 2019/20 Drinking Water Quality Report
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
From a total of 115 samples, two exceedances of turbidity have occurred from 2003 to 2013. The exceedances of 29.6 and 6 NTU occurred on 21 Jan 2004 and 8 Jul 2009, respectively.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Yuna (Western Australia) – Iron
2018/19: Yuna Iron 0.5mg/L (max), 0.275mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Three Springs – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
2008/09: Three Springs (Western Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids 758mg/L (max), 749mg/L (mean)
2009/10: Three Springs (Western Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids 749mg/L (max)
2010/11 Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 732mg/L (max), 719mg/L (mean)
2011/12 Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 743mg/L (max), 724mg/L (mean)
2013/14 Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 727mg/L (max), 724mg/L (mean)
2014/15 Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 736mg/L (max), 712mg/L (mean)
2015/16 Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 737mg/L (max), 731mg/L (mean)
2016/17 Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 719mg/L (max), 704mg/L (mean)
2017/18 Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 734mg/L (max), 725mg/L (mean)
2018/19: Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 726mg/L (max), 721mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 740mg/L (max), 731mg/L (mean)
2022/23: Three Springs (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 725mg/L (max), 712mg/L (mean)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Three Springs (Western Australia) – Chloride
2013/14 Three Springs (Western Australia) Chloride 355mg/L (max), 355mg/L (av)
2014/15 Three Springs (Western Australia) Chloride 370mg/L (max), 348mg/L (mean)
2015/16 Three Springs (Western Australia) Chloride 370mg/L (max), 368mg/L (mean)
2016/17 Three Springs (Western Australia) Chloride 355mg/L (max), 338mg/L (mean)
2017/18 Three Springs (Western Australia) Chloride 370mg/L (max), 360mg/L (mean)
2018/19: Three Springs (Western Australia) Chloride 370mg/L (max), 360mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Three Springs (Western Australia) Chloride 370mg/L (max), 368mg/L (mean)
2022/23: Three Springs (Western Australia) Chloride 355mg/L (max), 350mg/L (mean)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Three Springs (Western Australia) – Sodium
2013/14 Three Springs (Western Australia) Sodium 215mg/L (max), 213mg/L (mean)
2014/15 Three Springs (Western Australia) Sodium 215mg/L (max), 210mg/L (mean)
2015/16 Three Springs (Western Australia) Sodium 215mg/L (max), 213mg/L (mean)
2016/17 Three Springs (Western Australia) Sodium 215mg/L (max), 213mg/L (mean)
2017/18 Three Springs (Western Australia) Sodium 210mg/L (max), 210mg/L (mean)
2018/19: Three Springs (Western Australia) Sodium 215mg/L (max), 210mg/L (mean)
2019/20: Three Springs (Western Australia) Sodium 220mg/L (max), 215mg/L (mean)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
1996-2018 Nabawa (Western Australia) – Nitrate
“…According to the Water Corporation (2013) in 1996, the Western Australian Department of Heath exempted the following remote towns from meeting the water quality guidelines regarding excessive nitrate levels in drinking water: Cue, Meekatharra, Mount Magnet, Nabawa, New Norcia, Sandstone, Wiluna, Yalgoo, Laverton, Leonora, and Menzies. These exemptions are still current. Community health nurses are instructed to provide bottled water free to nursing mothers, at no cost…” Unsafe drinking water quality in remote Western
Australian Aboriginal communities Geographical Research 184 • May 2019 • 57(2), 178–188
The most significant chemical issues for water quality come from nitrates and uranium, which occur naturally and are common in the Goldfields and Pilbara. Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
In 2013-14, fourteen of 84 communities in the Program recorded nitrates above the safe health level for bottle-fed babies under three months. Two communities had readings above the standard for adults (Figure 5).
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2014/15: Geraldton (Western Australia) Iron
2014/15 Geraldton (Western Australia) Iron 1mg/L (max), 0.216mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2016/17: Dongara/Denison (Western Australia) Iron
2016/17 Dongara/Denison (Western Australia) Iron 0.46mg/L (max), 0.129mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Latham – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2008/09: Piawaning (Western Australia) – Iron 1.2mg/L (max), 0.44mg/L (mean)
2011/12 Piawaning (Western Australia) Iron 0.52mg/L (max), 0.253mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Piawaning (Western Australia) Total Dissolved Solids
2009/10: Piawaning (Western Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids 661mg/L
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2008/09: Dandaragan (Western Australia) – Iron 0.38mg/L (max), 0.196mg/L (mean)
2011/12 Dandaragan (Western Australia) Iron 0.760mg/L (max), 0.24mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Dandaragan – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Gascoyne Junction – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Cervantes – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Karratha – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Burrup LNG + Supply – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2008/09: Newdegate (Western Australia) – Iron 0.6mg/L (max), 0.24mg/L (mean)
2013/14 Newdegate (Western Australia) Iron 0.32mg/L (max), 0.183mg/L (av)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Salmon Gums – Western Australia – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Salmon Gums (Western Australia) – pH (alkaline)
2009-10: Salmon Gums (Western Australia) 8.54 pH units (av)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2008/09: Mt Hawthorn (Western Australia) Iron 0.32mg/L (max), 0.112 (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste), the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Bold Park (Western Australia) – Thermophilic Naegleria detection
2008/9: Bold Park (WA) Thermophilic Naegleria 1/133 samples positive.
“GUIDELINE No guideline value is set for Naegleria fowleri in drinking water, but an ‘action level’ is recommended for water supplies likely to be contaminated. If the organism is detected, advice should be sought from the relevant health authority.
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living, thermophilic amoeboflagellate which causes the waterborne disease primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). This rare but fatal condition has followed use of water for swimming, or domestic bathing. The organism occurs naturally in freshwater of suitable temperature, feeding on bacteria. Its occurrence is only indirectly related to human activity, inasmuch as such activity may modify temperatures or promote bacterial production. PAM has been reported from many countries, usually associated with thermally polluted environments, geothermal water or heated swimming pools. N. fowleri is almost exclusively aquatic, and water is the only known source of infection. Numerous nonvirulent Naegleria species are known in Australia.
PAM cases have been recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales; Naegleria fowleri has been detected in water in each of these states and in the Northern Territory. Australia is the only country where N. fowleri has been detected in public water supplies (Dorsch et al. 1983). Most of the available data on the density of N. fowleri in water relates to water supplies in South Australia (including the highest reported densities). In temperate Australia, significant seasonal cycles of density occur, from below one organism per litre to hundreds or thousands per litre in poorly disinfected water (Robinson and Christy 1984). N. fowleri detected at water temperatures below 18°C is likely to be present as cysts, which are not infectious, but which may seed a suitable environment.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
• A routine sample collected from a Kyneton customer tap site was positive for the presence of E. coli (1 cfu/100mL).
• There was no source of contamination identified.
Corrective actions:
• The chlorine residual was verified.
• Operational data for the Kyneton WTP was reviewed to ensure there had been no issues at the plant.
• The customer tap site, together with one upstream and one downstream were sampled, with zero E. coli results at all sites.
• Following sampling, flushing was undertaken in the area.
• Post flushing, sampling was again completed, with zero E. coli results recorded at all sites.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Macedon Ranges town to go without safe drinking water for days
Kyneton residents in Victoria’s Macedon Ranges will be without safe drinking water for days after a water main burst in the town, forcing authorities to warn residents to boil tap water before consumption.
Coliban Water said in a statement that a water main burst in Rennick Avenue, Kyneton late on Tuesday evening.
The burst caused a supply interruption for some Kyneton residents and very low pressure for others, potentially contaminating the system.
The regional water corporation, after consulting the Victorian health department, advises all Kyneton customers to boil their drinking water until further notice. A VicEmergency alert says a water quality alert is likely to be in place for several days.
Coliban Water has repaired the burst water main, and the water supply will soon be returned to normal, according to the VicEmergency message. However, tap water must still be boiled before drinking until Coliban confirms it is safe to drink again.
Drinking water is available at the Kyneton Showgrounds from Wednesday morning. Locals in the town of roughly 7500, located between Bendigo and Melbourne, can bring suitable containers to fill up to supplement their water supply at home.
Unboiled tap water can still be used for washing hands, showering and bathing, flushing toilets, and washing dishes and clothes.
However, if unboiled tap water is consumed, it could cause gastro-like symptoms.
Kyneton (Victoria) Nickel
18/4/16 Kyneton Nickel 0.045mg/L
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
19/2/07: Wedderburn (Victoria) 2org/100mL. (sample at customer tap)
No known cause. Possible bird entry. All possible entry points to the tank checked and sealed where necessary Chlorine residual at Korong Vale WTP OK. Re-sampling completed showing no further E.Coli
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Wedderburn – Victoria – Total Dissolved Solids (maximum levels)
2005/06: Wedderburn (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids 1500 μS/cm (max)
2006/07: Wedderburn (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids 1500 μS/cm
2007/8 Wedderburn Total Dissolved Solids 1400mg/L
2008/9 Wedderburn Total Dissolved Solids 1400mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Wedderburn – Victoria – Iron
2007/8 Wedderburn Iron 0.33mg/L
2008/9 Wedderburn Iron 0.4mg/L
2022/23: Wedderburn Iron 0.34mg/L (max), 0.06mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Wedderburn (Victoria) – Chloride
2007/8 Wedderburn Chloride 270mg/L
2008/9 Wedderburn Chloride 310mg/L
2009/10 Wedderburn Chloride 290mg/L
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Wedderburn (Victoria) – Sodium
2008/9 Wedderburn Sodium 180mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Wedderburn (Victoria) – pH (alkaline)
2019/20: Wedderburn (Victoria) pH (average) 9.5pH units (max), 8.8pH units (min)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2019/20 – Wedderburn – (Victoria) – Colour
2019/20: Wedderburn (Victoria) Customer Tap Colour 18 HU (max), 4 HU (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
There are no epidemiological studies of TCA carcinogenicity in humans. Most of the human health data for chlorinated acetic acids concern components of complex mixtures of water disinfectant by-products. These complex mixtures of disinfectant by-products have been associated with increased potential for bladder, rectal, and colon cancer in humans [reviewed by Boorman et al. (1999); Mills et al. (1998)].” Ref: tmp/Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) CASRN 76-03-9 IRIS US EPA.htm
Leitchville (Victoria) Lead
2007/08 – Leitchville (Victoria) – Lead 0.011mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
11/4/07: Harcourt (Victoria) 2org/100mL (sample at customer tap).
No known cause. Operation of the Castlemaine WTP checked and OK (no E.Coli). Re-sampling completed showing no further E.Coli
2009/10 Harcourt E.coli 5orgs/100ml 98.1% samples no e.coli (1 positive)
19/10/11 Harcourt E.coli 1/100mL
9/11/11 Harcourt E.coli 1/100mL
29/2/12 Harcourt E.coli 4/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Guideline: Based on health considerations, the concentration of formaldehyde in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Formaldehyde may be present in drinking water through ozonation of naturally occurring humic material, contamination by accidental spills, or deposition from the atmosphere. Typical concentrations in air are probably in the low parts-per-billion range. Overseas, formaldehyde has been detected in ozonated drinking water at concentrations up to 0.03 mg/L.
Formaldehyde is used industrially in the wood, paper and textile industries. It is also used in the production of a number of chemicals and for the preservation of biological material. It is occasionally used as a disinfectant, sometimes to disinfect water filters. Other sources of exposure include cigarette smoke and food. Formaldehyde is present in almost all common foods, and adult dietary intake is estimated at 11 mg/day. Drinking water would contribute less than 10% of total intake.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
No data are available on the concentrations of formaldehyde in Australian drinking waters
A water sample collected from a Harcourt customer tap site had an
elevated level of bromate 0.27mg/L, which exceeded the health based
guideline value for bromate (0.02mg/L) in the ADWG.
Bromate: Regulatory Standard = 0.02mg/L (Also see section of desalination). A suspected carcinogen. Bromate is formed when ozone used to disinfect drinking water reacts with naturally occurring bromide found in source water. Bromate formation in disinfected drinking water is influenced by factors such as bromide ion concentration, pH of the source water, the amount of ozone and the reaction time used to disinfect the water.
Bromate: Regulatory Standard = 0.02mg/L (Also see section of desalination). A suspected carcinogen. Bromate is formed when ozone used to disinfect drinking water reacts with naturally occurring bromide found in source water. Bromate formation in disinfected drinking water is influenced by factors such as bromide ion concentration, pH of the source water, the amount of ozone and the reaction time used to disinfect the water.
Bromate: Regulatory Standard = 0.02mg/L (Also see section of desalination). A suspected carcinogen. Bromate is formed when ozone used to disinfect drinking water reacts with naturally occurring bromide found in source water. Bromate formation in disinfected drinking water is influenced by factors such as bromide ion concentration, pH of the source water, the amount of ozone and the reaction time used to disinfect the water.
12/1/23: Tooborac • A routine sample collected from the Tooborac contact point was positive for the presence of E. coli (1 cfu/100mL).
• There was no source of contamination identified.
Corrective actions:
• The chlorine residual was verified.
• Operational data for the Heathcote WTP (which supplies the Tooborac WSL) was reviewed to ensure there had been no issues at the WTP.
• The break tank (located between Heathcote and Tooborac) and the Tooborac tanks were inspected for any signs of contamination, with none being found.
• Tooborac’s water mains were flushed, and sampling undertaken.
• All samples collected verified safe drinking water was being supplied.
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
There are no epidemiological studies of TCA carcinogenicity in humans. Most of the human health data for chlorinated acetic acids concern components of complex mixtures of water disinfectant by-products. These complex mixtures of disinfectant by-products have been associated with increased potential for bladder, rectal, and colon cancer in humans [reviewed by Boorman et al. (1999); Mills et al. (1998)].” Ref: tmp/Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) CASRN 76-03-9 IRIS US EPA.htm
Tooborac (Victoria) – Trihalomethanes
2005/06: Tooborac (Victoria) – Trihalomethanes 350μg/L (maximum during year)
2006/07: Tooborac (Victoria) – Trihalomethanes 320μg/L (maximum during year)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Tooborac (Victoria) Lead
2013/14 Tooborac Lead 0.023mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Tooborac (Victoria) Total Dissolved Solids
2006/07: Tooborac (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids 1300 EC Units
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Tooborac (Victoria) – Colour
2010/11 Tooborac Colour 20HU
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Tooborac – Victoria – Iron
2007/8 Tooborac Iron 0.42mg/L
2010/11 Tooborac Iron 0.6mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Tooborac (Victoria) – Turbidity
2009/10 Tooborac Turbidity 7.8 NTU
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
22/2/18: Tooborac (Victoria) – Nickel
A sample, collected from the distribution system as part of Coliban Water’s sampling
program, had an elevated level of nickel (0.140 mg/L), exceeding the health-based guideline value for nickel (0.02mg/L) in the ADWG. The investigation undertaken has concluded that the nickel exceedance appears to be an unexplainable anomaly. It was an isolated incident and not an ongoing issue, and the probable cause of the elevated nickel result was contamination during sampling procedures.
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
6/3/06: Axedale (Victoria) 36orgs/100mL. 98% compliance with no compliance during year.
There was a failure of the chlorinator at the Axedale Water Treatment Plant. The chlorinator was repaired immediately after notification of failure and an online chlorine analyser has since been installed at the plant to reduce the risk of failure reoccurring.
3/4/07: Axedale (Victoria) 1org/100mL.
No known cause – possibly due to low chlorine residual. Increased chlorine dosage rate to gain higher chlorine residual. Re-sampling completed showing no further E.Coli
30/8/11 Axedale E.coli 1/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Axedale (Victoria) – Trihalomethanes
2005/06: Axedale (Victoria) – Trihalomethanes 250μg/L (maximum during year)
2006/07: Axedale (Victoria) – Trihalomethanes 390μg/L (maximum during year)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Axedale – Victoria – Total Dissolved Solids (Electrical Conductivity)
2006/07: Axedale (Victoria) – Total Dissolved Solids 1300EC (max)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Bromate: Regulatory Standard = 0.02mg/L (Also see section of desalination). A suspected carcinogen. Bromate is formed when ozone used to disinfect drinking water reacts with naturally occurring bromide found in source water. Bromate formation in disinfected drinking water is influenced by factors such as bromide ion concentration, pH of the source water, the amount of ozone and the reaction time used to disinfect the water.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Hepburn (Victoria) – Iron
2010/11: Daylesford (low level) Hepburn (Victoria) Iron 0.33mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste), the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
12 April 2011 – Anabaena sp. (coiled) – 1.67mm3/L biovolume. Reservoir already isolated from supply due to pipeline renewal work. Increased monitoring regime in accordance with BGA Management Plan. ‘Supply by Agreement’ customers notified. Assessed impact on downstream reservoir
Evansford Reservoir Low level Anabaena counts detected in November 2012. CHW decided to dose the reservoir with appropriate algaecide which was carried out after appropriate notification to DEPI, EPA and the Regional Coordinator. The low level dosing proved effective with cell counts dispersing. Cell counts were not significant enough to be reported to DEPI.
Due to the lack of adequate data, no guideline value is set for concentrations of saxitoxins.
However given the known toxicity, the relevant health authority should be notified
immediately if blooms of Anabaena circinalis (Dolichospermum circinalis)1 or other producers
of saxitoxins are detected in sources of drinking water.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
There are three types of cyanobacterial neurotoxins: anatoxin a, anatoxin a-s and the saxitoxins. The saxitoxins include saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, C-toxins and gonyautoxins (Chorus and Bartram 1999 Chapter 3). The anatoxins seem unique to cyanobacteria, while saxitoxins are also produced by various dinoflagellates under the name of paralytic shellfish poisons (PSPs). A number of cyanobacterial genera can produce neurotoxins, including Anabaena (Dolichospermum), Oscillatoria, Cylindrospermopsis, Cylindrospermum, Lyngbya and Aphanizomenon, but to date in Australia, neurotoxin production has only been detected from Anabaena circinalis (Dolichospermum circinalis), and the Australian isolates appear to
produce only saxitoxins (Velzeboer et al. 1998). As with most toxic cyanobacteria, A. circinalis (D. circinalis) tends to proliferate in calm, stable waters, particularly in summer when thermal stratification reduces mixing. The toxicity of individual populations of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) is variable, and one extensive survey of the toxicity across the Murray-Darling Basin indicated that 54% of field samples tested were neurotoxic (Baker and Humpage, 1994). A natural population may consist of a mixture of toxic and non-toxic strains and this is believed to explain why population toxicity may vary over time and between samples (Chorus and Bartram 1999 Chapter 3). The saxitoxins are a group of carbamoyl and decarbamoyl alkaloids that are either non-sulfated (saxitoxins), singly-sulfated (gonyautoxins), or doubly-sulfated (C-toxins). The various types of toxins vary in potency, with saxitoxin having the highest toxicity. The prevalent toxins in Australian blooms of A. circinalis are the C-toxins. These can convert in the environment or by acidification or boiling to more potent toxins (Negri et al. 1997, Ravn et al. 1995). The half-lives for breakdown of a range of different saxitoxins in natural water have been shown to vary from 9 to 28 days, and gonyautoxins may persist in the environment for more than three months (Jones and Negri, 1997).
AUSTRALIAN SIGNIFICANCE
Blooms of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) have been recorded in many rivers, lakes, reservoirs and dams throughout Australia, and A. circinalis (D. circinalis) is the most common organism in riverine blooms in the Murray-Darling Basin (Baker and Humpage 1994). In temperate parts of Australia blooms typically occur from late spring to early autumn. The first reported neurotoxic bloom of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) in Australia occurred in 1972 (May and McBarron 1973). The most publicised blooms occurred in the Murray-Darling System in 1991, 2009 and 2010 (NSWBGATF 1992, NSW Office of Water 2009, MDBA 2010). The first bloom extended over 1,000 kilometres of the Darling-Barwon River system in New South Wales (NSWBGATF 1992). A state of emergency was declared, with a focus on providing safe drinking water to towns, communities and landholders. Stock deaths were associated with the occurrence of the bloom but there was little evidence of human health impacts. The blooms in 2009 and 2010
affected several hundred kilometres of the River Murray on the border between NSW and Victoria and included Anabaena, Microcystis and Cylindrospermopsin. Alerts were issued about risks to recreational use, primary contact by domestic users, livestock and domestic animals. A bloom of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) in a dam in New South Wales was shown to have caused sheep deaths (Negri et al. 1995). Relatively low numbers of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) (below 2,000 cells/mL) can produce offensive tastes and odours in drinking water due to the production of odorous compounds such as geosmin… ADWG 2011
15 February 2011 (37 days): Microcystis sp. – 2.29mm3/L biovolume. Increased monitoring regime in accordance with BGA Management Plan. Reservoir isolated from supply and carbon dosing initiated at treatment plant. Reservoir spot dosed with algaecide and toxicity testing undertaken. Informed DH of initial and subsequent test results. (CHW Annual Drinking Water Quality Report 2010/11)
18 January 2011 (43 days) – Anabaena circinalis – 5.07mm3/L biovolume Microcystis sp. – 0.25mm3/L biovolume. Initial sample taken from surface of reservoir. Increased monitoring regime in accordance with BGA Management Plan, including confirming algae levels at offtake (22m below surface). Carbon dosing initiated at treatment plant.
Lal Lal Reservoir Low level Anabaena counts occurred between January and April 2013 It was reported to DEPI that low levels of Anabaena were detected in surface samples collected from the Lal Lal Reservoir in early January 2013. No Anabaena was detected in samples collected from the Lal Lal Reservoir offtake. As reservoir releases were providing water to Barwon Water at the time Barwon Water was notified of the surface detections. The Lal Lal Water Treatment Plant has the capability to dose PAC to mitigate taste and odour issues that could be associated with Anabaena blooms. Subsequent observations and monitoring was conducted during the period and Anabaena counts had reduced to nominal levels by mid April 2013.
Due to the lack of adequate data, no guideline value is set for concentrations of saxitoxins.
However given the known toxicity, the relevant health authority should be notified
immediately if blooms of Anabaena circinalis (Dolichospermum circinalis)1 or other producers
of saxitoxins are detected in sources of drinking water.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
There are three types of cyanobacterial neurotoxins: anatoxin a, anatoxin a-s and the saxitoxins. The saxitoxins include saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, C-toxins and gonyautoxins (Chorus and Bartram 1999 Chapter 3). The anatoxins seem unique to cyanobacteria, while saxitoxins are also produced by various dinoflagellates under the name of paralytic shellfish poisons (PSPs). A number of cyanobacterial genera can produce neurotoxins, including Anabaena (Dolichospermum), Oscillatoria, Cylindrospermopsis, Cylindrospermum, Lyngbya and Aphanizomenon, but to date in Australia, neurotoxin production has only been detected from Anabaena circinalis (Dolichospermum circinalis), and the Australian isolates appear to
produce only saxitoxins (Velzeboer et al. 1998). As with most toxic cyanobacteria, A. circinalis (D. circinalis) tends to proliferate in calm, stable waters, particularly in summer when thermal stratification reduces mixing. The toxicity of individual populations of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) is variable, and one extensive survey of the toxicity across the Murray-Darling Basin indicated that 54% of field samples tested were neurotoxic (Baker and Humpage, 1994). A natural population may consist of a mixture of toxic and non-toxic strains and this is believed to explain why population toxicity may vary over time and between samples (Chorus and Bartram 1999 Chapter 3). The saxitoxins are a group of carbamoyl and decarbamoyl alkaloids that are either non-sulfated (saxitoxins), singly-sulfated (gonyautoxins), or doubly-sulfated (C-toxins). The various types of toxins vary in potency, with saxitoxin having the highest toxicity. The prevalent toxins in Australian blooms of A. circinalis are the C-toxins. These can convert in the environment or by acidification or boiling to more potent toxins (Negri et al. 1997, Ravn et al. 1995). The half-lives for breakdown of a range of different saxitoxins in natural water have been shown to vary from 9 to 28 days, and gonyautoxins may persist in the environment for more than three months (Jones and Negri, 1997).
AUSTRALIAN SIGNIFICANCE
Blooms of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) have been recorded in many rivers, lakes, reservoirs and dams throughout Australia, and A. circinalis (D. circinalis) is the most common organism in riverine blooms in the Murray-Darling Basin (Baker and Humpage 1994). In temperate parts of Australia blooms typically occur from late spring to early autumn. The first reported neurotoxic bloom of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) in Australia occurred in 1972 (May and McBarron 1973). The most publicised blooms occurred in the Murray-Darling System in 1991, 2009 and 2010 (NSWBGATF 1992, NSW Office of Water 2009, MDBA 2010). The first bloom extended over 1,000 kilometres of the Darling-Barwon River system in New South Wales (NSWBGATF 1992). A state of emergency was declared, with a focus on providing safe drinking water to towns, communities and landholders. Stock deaths were associated with the occurrence of the bloom but there was little evidence of human health impacts. The blooms in 2009 and 2010
affected several hundred kilometres of the River Murray on the border between NSW and Victoria and included Anabaena, Microcystis and Cylindrospermopsin. Alerts were issued about risks to recreational use, primary contact by domestic users, livestock and domestic animals. A bloom of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) in a dam in New South Wales was shown to have caused sheep deaths (Negri et al. 1995). Relatively low numbers of A. circinalis (D. circinalis) (below 2,000 cells/mL) can produce offensive tastes and odours in drinking water due to the production of odorous compounds such as geosmin… ADWG 2011
Pollution from an old mine has made a northern Queensland major river into a toxic contamination zone, with the State Government warning residents not to drink, swim or use the water.
LEIGH SALES, PRESENTER: While much of eastern Australia is in the grip of a drought, a community in far north Queensland is also struggling to water stock and grow their crops – but not because of the big dry.
7.30 can reveal that astronomical levels of heavy metals and highly acidic mine water have leeched into a local creek. The source is a derelict copper mine.
The contamination is so bad that the Queensland Government is worried about the impact on people using water from the river.
STEVE MURRAY: You have got the most beautiful natural resource right on your doorstep. And a lot of people do call it “paradise”. I have got some friends that come up here and they don’t want to go.
MARK WILLACY, REPORTER: For Steve Murray and his wife Alexis Alexandrou, their slice of paradise on the Walsh River has sustained their family, their crops and their livestock for more than a dozen years.
But a few months ago, a letter arrived from Queensland’s Department of Environment.
STEVE MURRAY: We have been told not to use the water for recreational use, for animals. Definitely don’t drink it.
How many people are drinking the water that don’t know it is contaminated?
MARK WILLACY: And this, according to the State Government, is the source of the contamination. The Baal Gammon mine, two hours’ drive south-west of Cairns, once produced copper, silver and tin.
First mined in the 1930s, it was shut down a few years ago and mothballed. But its giant pit remains an open sore on the landscape, one that for many years has been weeping a cocktail of acid and heavy metals into Jamie Creek right next door.
The contamination from the Baal Gammon mine comes down Jamie Creek to here, the Walsh River. Now, that is a problem because this river supports livestock, it supports agriculture and people drink its waters.
Recent government testing has found that people who do drink from this river could be what it calls “adversely affected by heavy metal contamination”.
GAVIN MUDD, PROF., ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER, RMIT: The levels we see in the discharged waters coming from Baal Gammon are astronomical.
For me, the contaminants of real concern are aluminium, copper; zinc as well and cadmium.
We know aluminium is implicated in things like Alzheimer’s. Cadmium is also a neurotoxin, so it affects the brain.
MARK WILLACY: The Queensland Government is so concerned by the contamination of waterways here, it has issued an Environmental Protection Order to the owner of the mine to stop any further releases of polluted water; and the Environment Department is now investigating alleged non-compliance with that order.
DAVID CRISAFULLI, QLD ENVIRONMENT SPOKESMAN: It has been nearly six months since those tests. There should be: warning bells have been sounded. People should know about it and we should be taking action.
DAVE DYER: When you see all the fish floating and now there is no life in the river, it’s very eerie. All the farmers without water; and here we have got beautiful, clear water and you can’t use it.
MARK WILLACY: Dave Dyer has lived and relied on the river for more than 30 years.
DAVE DYER: It is sort of unbelievable that you have got New South Wales, half of Queensland in drought: no water. Farmers doing it hard and walking off their land everywhere.
Here we are running a river that you can’t use.
MARK WILLACY: Dave Dyer no longer pumps water from the river for drinking or for his organic produce, which has been left to wither.
It is not just the people out on the Walsh River hit hard by this contamination. The hamlet of Watsonville is just downstream from the mine, on Jamie Creek.
(Mark Willacy walks on creek bed)
To my right, past that fence, is the mine. And this is the bed of Jamie Creek. During the wet season it runs like a torrent, but now in the dry, as you can see, what is left behind is an array of colours: yellows, oranges and reds. And scientists believe that is directly caused by the heavy metal contamination coming directly from that mine.
MARK WILLACY: From the air, you can see just how close the creek is to the mine and to its enormous flooded pit.
MARK WILLACY: Back down to earth, in the bed of the creek, you get a closer view of some of the contamination.
Further downstream, where the creek flows into the Walsh River, people complain of fish kills, choking sludge and a barren ecosystem.
DAVE DYER: I never thought the problem would have been this bad. No platypus, no birds down there, you know. You go 100 metres away from the river: wildlife everywhere. Go down near the river: it’s quiet.
CRYSTAL STONE: Don’t go in the water, though, all right?
MARK WILLACY: Crystal Stone was born here and she’s now raising her two daughters in Watsonville.
CRYSTAL STONE: Wouldn’t it be nice if we could go for a swim?
(To Mark Willacy) We used to have families come down here and have birthday parties, gatherings, barbecues. You know, it’s really easily accessible with the road right here. You can just drive straight in, go swimming.
None of the locals come here anymore, just because of the contamination. Unfortunately some outsiders do come here, not aware of the contamination. And they’ll go swimming in there and probably let their dogs drink it.
MARK WILLACY: Like others here, Crystal Stone wants to know why more is not being done.
The Environment Minister, Leeanne Enoch, declined to be interviewed, citing an ongoing investigation.
The mine is owned by a company called Baal Gammon Copper. Its ultimate owner, Brisbane businessman Denis Reinhardt, took it over in 2016. His company was paid $1.8 million by the previous mineral rights holder to assume the mine’s liabilities.
GAVIN MUDD: The transfer of liabilities from one company to another is a very contentious area. And that’s something that, I think increasingly, people are saying: “Actually, no. We shouldn’t be transferring liabilities from one company to another until we know that either the rehabilitation is finished and the site is stable, or something like that.”
CRYSTAL STONE: It is not really a surprise. I can see why someone would get paid to take this mine. It is just been – the people that have tried to mine it in the past: it has just been
problem after problem after problem for them.
MARK WILLACY: In a statement to 7.30, Denis Reinhardt denies that his company has failed to conform with the Environmental Protection Order, saying it has taken “all reasonably practicable measures to ensure compliance,” adding there is “no longer a water seepage” into Jamie Creek from the mine.
The Government wants Baal Gammon Copper to pay an extra $2 million in environmental bonds, arguing the nearly $4 million it holds is not enough to fix the site. Mr Reinhardt won’t comment about this, saying the matter is the subject of a court case.
DAVID CRISAFULLI: If the operator doesn’t act, well, then it is up to the Government to act. And that money isn’t designed to be sitting in an account. It is there as a safety net to get in and do things.
MARK WILLACY: This isn’t the first time the Baal Gammon mine has leaked heavy metals into the waterways up here.
MARK WILLACY: Photos taken in 2012 by locals show dead fish and the creek and river running red and a murky dark brown.
The then owner and operator were later fined $200,000.
MARK WILLACY: Where are the grapes sourced from, Steve?
STEVE MURRAY: From France and Italy. They have got about a 50-year life span, but as you can see at the moment, they are not getting much attention because you can’t do anything, you know what I mean?
MARK WILLACY: You can’t water these with…?
STEVE MURRAY: We can’t water them, no.
MARK WILLACY (voiceover): Back at Steve Murray’s place on the Walsh River, he takes me for a stroll into his vineyard, an investment he ploughed tens of thousands into and one that is now withering on the vine.
(To Steve Murray) And it’s come all the way from Italy, France and it will die here?
STEVE MURRAY: That’s right. Yes. Just for fun.
MARK WILLACY: This beautiful spot was supposed to be this family’s dream home, but it has
become a poisoned paradise.
STEVE MURRAY: It is pretty devastating. You wonder how anyone can be allowed to do it, you know?
You have got all of that at your door and someone is allowed to just come along and basically throw a couple of buckets of poison in wherever you drink from.
I don’t think that is right anywhere in the world.
LEIGH SALES: That report from Mark Willacy and Alexandra Blucher of the ABC Investigative Unit.
And in a tragic postscript: one of the people interviewed for that story, Dave Dyer, was killed in a car accident this week. Our sympathies to his family.
2012/16: Hardness average 234.6mg/L (5 detections out of 5 above guideline)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
2012/17: Point Pearce pH 8.99 (average) pH Alkaline
2019/20: Point Pearce pH (average) 9.3pH units
“Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.” 2011 ADWG
9 October 2013 – Yalata (South Australia) – Lead 0.0169mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Yalata (South Australia) – Iron
11 September 2012: Yalata (South Australia) Iron 0.5206mg/L
19 August 2013: Yalata (South Australia) Iron 0.5531mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2017 – Yalata – Sodium
21 February 2017: Yalata (South Australia) – Sodium 197mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2017 – Yalata (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
February 2017 – March 2017: 1725mg/L (average from 2 detections. Two above ADWG)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Gerard (South Australia) – Trihalomethanes Breaches to ADWG
2016/17: Gerard (South Australia): Trihalomethanes
5/10/16: Gerard (South Australia) Trihalomethanes 344ug/L,
19/10/16: Gerard (South Australia) Trihalomethanes 353ug/L,
2/11/16: Gerard (South Australia) Trihalomethanes 301ug/L,
9/11/16: Gerard (South Australia) Trihalomethanes 364ug/L,
29/12/16: Gerard (South Australia) Trihalomethanes 365ug/L,
4/1/17: Gerard (South Australia) Trihalomethanes 379ug/L,
11/1/17: Gerard (South Australia) Trihalomethanes 263ug/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Gerard (South Australia) – Trichloroacetic Acid + Total Haloacetic Acids
7/10/21: Gerard (South Australia) Trichloroacetic Acid 113ug/L
6/10/21: Gerard (South Australia) Total Haloacetic Acid 228ug/L
20/10/21: Gerard (South Australia) Total Haloacetic Acid 287ug/L (171.667ug/L 2021/22 av.)
6/10/21: Gerard (South Australia) Trichloroacetic Acid 6/10/21 203ug/L
20/10/21: Gerard (South Australia) Trichloroacetic Acid 257ug/L (153.3ug/L 2021/22 av.)
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
Gerard (South Australia) – Aluminium
April 9 2014: Gerard (Queensland) Aluminium 0.899mg/L
Australian Guideline: Aluminium 0.2mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2014 Gerard (South Australia) – Iron
9/4/14: Gerard (South Australia) – Iron 0.808mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
15/8/16: Yunyarinyi (South Australia) – Fluoride 1.6mg/L
28/8/19: Yunyatinyi (South Australia) – Fluoride 1.6mg/L
26/8/20: Yunyarinyi (South Australia) – Fluoride 1.6mg/L
9/8/21: Yunyarinyi NDW TS Non Potable Fluoride 1.6mg/L (max)
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Yunyarinyi (South Australia) – Silica
19 August 2013: Yunyarinyi (South Australia). Silica 82mg/L
5 August 2014: Yunyarinyi (South Australia). Silica 78.9mg/L
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
Yunyarinyi (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/16: Yunyarinyi (South Australia) – Hardness average 254.4mg/L (5 detections out of 5 above guideline)
9/8/21: Yunyarinyi TS NDW Non Potable Total Hardness 9/8/21 258mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Yunyarinyi (Kenmore Park) 1997-1999
The salinity of these groundwaters is 540-670 mg/L . TDS with nitrate concentrations of 22-44 mg/L and fluoride concentrations of 1.5 mg/L. Salinity is within the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (1996) although water quality with respect to fluoride is marginal. The 1997 water quality investigation detected total coliform counts in two of the bores possibly indicating the presence of biofilms in the bore casing which will need to be cleaned out (Fitzgerald et al.,
2000).
Total Dissolved Solids 1997-1999
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
17 December 2012: Kaltijiti (South Australia) 1cfu/100mL (Kalijti TS Drinking Water)
18 November 2013: Kaltjiti (South Australia) 5cfu/100mL (NDW)
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2019/21 – Kaltjiti (South Australia ) – Fluoride
16/8/19: Kaltjiti (South Australia) Fluoride 1.7mg/L
23/2/21: Kaltjiti (South Australia) Fluoride 1.5mg/L
25/5/21: Kaltjiti (South Australia) Fluoride 1.5mg/L
10/8/21: Kaltjiti 10/8/21 (South Australia) Fluoride 1.5mg/L (max)
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Kaltjiti (Fregon) Total Dissolved Solids
1997-1999: Kaltjiti (Fregon) – Total Dissolved Solids
The salinity of these groundwaters ranges from 1050 to 1820 mg/L TDS with nitrate concentrations of 37-50 mg/L and fluoride concentrations of 1.3-1.4 mg/L. This water is deemed unacceptable in terms of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (1996) and poor to unacceptable according to WHO Guidelines (1993).
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
16/8/19: Kaltjiti (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 1210mg/L (max), 1195mg/L (av.) (potable/non-potable)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Nitrates
Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
27/8/19: Kaltjiti Nitrate + Nitrite as CO3 48.73mg/L (potable/non-potable)
Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing.
19 August 2013: Kaltijiti (South Australia). Silica 86.2mg/L
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
2013/15 – Kaltjiti – Sodium
19 August 2013: Kaltjiti (South Australia) – Sodium 300mg/L
17 February 2015: Kaltjiti (South Australia) – Sodium 294mg/L
10 August 2015: Kaltjiti (South Australia) – Sodium 385mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2012/16 – Kaltjiti (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/16: Kaltjiti (South Australia) – Hardness average 284.75mg/L (4 detections out of 5 above guideline)
27/8/19: Kaltjiti (South Australia) Hardness 348mg/L (potable/non-potable)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Kaltjiti (South Australia) – Chloride
26/11/19: Kaltjiti (South Australia) Chloride 413mg/L (potable/non-potable)
10/8/21: Kaltjiti (South Australia) Chloride 413mg/L (max)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
10 September 2014: Oak Valley (South Australia) – Nitrate + Nitrite as NO3: 70mg/L
16 September 2015: Oak Valley (South Australia) – Nitrate + Nitrite as NO3: 70.9mg/L
24 August 2016: Oak Valley (South Australia) – Nitrate + Nitrite as NO3: 63.8mg/L
21 August 2018: Nitrate + Nitrite as NO3 54.93 mg/l
20/8/19: Oak Valley Nitrate + Nitrite as CO3 54.49mg/L (potable/non-potable)
8/9/20: Oak Valley Nitrate + Nitrate as NO3 53.6mg/L (Potable system–Non Potable Zone)
9/8/21: Oak Valley TS NDW Non Potable Nitrate + Nitrite 51.83mg/L (max)
Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
9 October 2013 – Oak Valley TS Rain Water (South Australia) – Lead 0.016mg/L
16 September 2015 – Oak Valley TS Rain Water Drinking Water (South Australia) – Lead 0.138mg/L
20/8/19: Oak Valley (South Australia) Lead 0.023mg/L
18/2/20: Oak Valley (South Australia) Lead 0.0135mg/L
18/2/20: Oak Valley (South Australia) Lead 0.0178mg/L
15/2/21: Oak Valley (South Australia) Lead 0.0141mg/L
18/5/21: Oak Valley (South Australia) Lead 0.0145mg/L
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Oak Valley (South Australia) – Zinc
20/8/19: Oak Valley Zinc 2.688mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
Oak Valley (South Australia) – Chloride
11 September 2012: Oak Valley (South Australia) Chloride 596mg/L
9 October 2013: Oak Valley (South Australia) Chloride 663mg/L
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Oak Valley – Sodium
10 September 2014: Oak Valley (South Australia) – Sodium 443mg/L
16 September 2015: Oak Valley (South Australia) – Sodium 253mg/L
24 August 2016: Oak Valley (South Australia) – Sodium 385mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Oak Valley (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
September 2012 – August 2016: 1460mg/L (average from 5 detections. Four above ADWG)
20/8/19: Oak Valley (South Australia) Total Dissolved Solids 605mg/L (potable/non-potable)
16/11/21: Oak Valley TS NDW Non Potable Total Dissolved Solids 801mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Oak Valley (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/16: Oak Valley (South Australia) – Hardness average 344.6mg/L (5 detections out of 5 above guideline)
16/11/21: Oak Valley TS NDW Non Potable Total Hardness 207mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
22 October 2014: Nepabunna (South Australia) 100cfu/100mL
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Nepabunna (South Australia) – Arsenic
18/8/20: Nepabunna (South Australia)Arsenic 0.0873mg/L (Potable System-Non Potable Zone)
Arsenic: Australian Drinking Water Guideline = 0.01mg/L
Arsenic is bioaccumulative and symptoms may take 10-15 years to develop after expsoure at high levels. Drinking water can be contaminated with inorganic arsenic through wind blown dust, leaching or runoff from soil, rocks and sediment. Groundwater sources such as bores will usually have higher arsenic levels than surface water. In major Australian reticulated water supplies concentrations of arsenic range up to 0.015mg/L, with typical values less than
0.005mg/L. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/ehu/2676.pdf
Nepabunna (South Australia) – Chloride
7 August 2012: Nepabunna (South Australia) Chloride 319mg/L
29 October 2013: Nepabunna (South Australia) Chloride 456mg/L
31/7/19: Nepabunna (fire hydrant) (South Australia) Chloride 340mg/L (potable/non-potable)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Nepabunna (South Australia) – Zinc
7 August 2012: Nepabunna (South Australia) – Zinc 3.309mg/L
31/7/19: Nepabunna (South Australia) Zinc 2.564mg/L (potable/non-potable)
26/8/21: Nepabunna TS Rain Water (Flushing Main) Zinc 3.112 mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
Nepabunna (South Australia) – Iron
7 August 2012: Nepabunna (South Australia) Iron 69.19mg/L
29 October 2013: Nepabunna (South Australia) Iron 14.53mg/L
31/7/19: Nepabunna (fire hydrant) (South Australia) Iron 2.197mg/L (potable/non-potable)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2014/16 – Nepabunna – Sodium
30 July 2014: Nepabunna (South Australia) – Sodium 300mg/L
27 July 2016: Nepabunna (South Australia) – Sodium 262mg/L
26/11/19: Nepabunna (fire hydrant) (South Australia) Sodium 294mg/L (potable/non-potable)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2012/13 – Nepabunna (South Australia) – Sulphate
7 August 2012: Nepabunna (South Australia) Sulphate 399mg/L
29 October 2013: Nepabunna (South Australia) Sulphate 378mg/L
31/7/19: Nepabunna (fire hydrant) (South Australia) Sulphate 378mg/L (potable/non-potable)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sulfate in drinking water
should not exceed 250 mg/L. Purgative effects may occur if the concentration exceeds 500 mg/L.
Sulfate occurs naturally in a number of minerals, and is used commercially in the manufacture of numerous products including chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides and insecticides. Sulfate, including sulfuric acid, is also used in mining, pulping, and the metal and plating industries. Barium sulfate is used as a lubricant in drilling rigs for groundwater supply.
In the water industry, aluminium sulfate (alum) is used as a flocculant in water treatment, and copper sulfate is used for the control of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in water storages.
The highest concentrations reported in drinking water overseas are from groundwater supplies where the presence of sulfate is due to natural leaching from rocks. Concentrations have been reported up to 2200 mg/L. In source waters, concentrations are typically less than 100 mg/L.
The taste threshold for sulfate is in the range 250–500 mg/L.” ADWG 2011
2012/16 – Nepabunna (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
August 2012 – July 2016: 1460mg/L (average from 5 detections. All above ADWG)
31/7/19: Nepabunna (fire hydrant) (South Australia)Total Dissolved Solids 1480mg/L (potable/non-potable)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Nepabunna (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/16: Nepabunna (South Australia) – Hardness average 745.8mg/L (5 detections out of 5 above guideline)
31/7/19: Nepabunna (fire hydrant) (South Australia) Hardness 479mg/L (potable/non-potable)
31/7/19: Nepabunna (fire hydrant) (South Australia) Hardness 729mg/L (potable/non-potable)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Nepabunna (South Australia) – Turbidity
31/7/19: Nepabunna (fire hydrant) (South Australia)Turbidity 31 NTU (potable/non-potable)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Nepabunna (South Australia) – Lead
22/9/21: Nepabunna Rain Water Flushing Main Lead 0.0287mg/L (max) 0.018mg/L (av.)
No lead detections elsewhere in the system or at the WTP on this date or in previous weeks. It was determined that this was a localised issue at the two sample taps. Resample did not detect lead and previous samples at these points had not detected lead. Sample points were replaced with dedicated Ned Kelly sample points and lead has not been detected since.
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
19 November 2012: Mimili (South Australia) – Fluoride 1.9mg/L
19 August 2013: Mimili (South Australia) – Fluoride 2.1mg/L
5 August 2014: Mimili (South Australia) – Fluoride 2.1mg/L
10 August 2015: Mimili (South Australia) – Fluoride 2.5mg/L
25/2/20: Mimili (South Australia) Fluoride 2.1mg/L
23/2/21: Mimili (South Australia) Fluoride 2.1mg/L
8/3/22: Mimili NDW TS Non Potable Fluoride 2.2mg/L (max)
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Mimili (South Australia) – Chloride
19 November 2012: Mimili (South Australia) Chloride 341mg/L
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Mimili (South Australia) – Silica
19 August 2013: Mimili (South Australia). Silica 93.3mg/L
5 August 2014: Mimili (South Australia). Silica 86.5mg/L
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
Mimili (South Australia) – Sodium
19 August 2013: Mimili (South Australia) – Sodium 365mg/L
5 August 2014: Mimili (South Australia) – Sodium 355mg/L
10 August 2015: Mimili (South Australia) – Sodium 419mg/L
10 August 2015: Mimili TS Drinking Water (South Australia) – Sodium 190mg/L
25/2/20: Mimili Sodium 289mg/L
8/3/22: Mimili NDW TS Non Potable Sodium 340mg/L (max)
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Mimili (South Australia) – Total Dissolved Solids
November 2012 – March 2017: 1006mg/L (average from 5 detections. Four above ADWG)
27/8/19: Mimili Total Dissolved Solids 739mg/L
25/2/20: Mimili Total Dissolved Solids 1070mg/L (potable/non-potable)
8/3/22: Mimili TS NDW Non Potable Total Dissolved Solids 1220mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Mimili (South Australia) – Hardness
2012/17: Mimili (South Australia) – Hardness average 203.4mg/L (4 detections out of 5 above guideline)
8/3/22: Mimili TS NDW Non Potable Total Hardness as CaCO3 251mg/L (max)
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Mimili (South Australia)
Monitoring shows that the community water supply comes from two bores, M-1 and M-3. From November 1998 to March 1999 usage exceeded 2800 KL/month (“‘345 L/person/day) from these two bores; the maximum abstraction was in January 1999 and was 3800 KL ( “‘470 L/person/day).
The salinity of these groundwaters is 1050-1090 mg/L TDS with nitrate concentrations of 73-83 mg/L and fluoride concentrations 1.9-2.3 mg/L. These concentrations exceed the levels suggested in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (1996).
Nitrates
Excessive nitrates in the diet reduce blood’s ability to carry oxygen. In infants, this can cause the potentially life-threatening Blue Baby Syndrome, where the skin takes on a bluish colour and the child has trouble breathing. Housing provides bottled water for infants under three months in communities with high nitrates. Long term solutions would likely include asset replacements or upgrades or finding new water sources, or a combination of these.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Fluoride
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2012 – Evans Landing (Queensland) – Turbidity
19/9/12: Note high turbidity in Evans Landing. <1 NTU is ideal for effective disinfection, and 5 NTU is aesthetic guideline.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
19/9/12 Evans Landing (Queensland) – Iron
19/9/12: High iron readings (ADWG guideline is 0.3 mg/L for taste threshold) were measured on two occasions in Evans Landing.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.” 2011 ADWG
2016/17: Tea Gardens (New South Wales): Trihalomethanes (Reticulation): 303μg/L (max), 222.5μg/L (average)
Tea Gardens water supply system achieved 99.3% of results within ADWG compared to 98.3% during 2015 – 2016. A total of 306 analytes were tested for verification monitoring in Tea Gardens reticulation system. Total trihalomethanes (THMs) were above the guideline value on two occasions. Disinfection by-products are formed when organic matter reacts with chlorine. The long detention time in reservoirs and reticulation system, partly due to low water usage outside holiday periods has contributed to these elevated readings. In response to this, water levels have been reduced in reservoirs when appropriate, and monitoring frequency has been increased.
Midcoast Water: DRINKING WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ANNUAL REPORT SUMMARY 2016-2017
2017/18: Tea Gardens (New South Wales): Trihalomethanes (Reticulation): 302μg/L (max), 246.91μg/L (average)
Tea Gardens water supply system achieved 96.0% of water quality results in the reticulation system within ADWG compared to 99.3% during 2016 – 2017. A total of 322 analytes were tested for verification monitoring in Tea Gardens reticulation system.
Results outside ADWG were total trihalomethanes (THMs) on 13 occasions.
Midcoast Water: DRINKING WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ANNUAL REPORT SUMMARY 2017-2018
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Bulahdelah (New South Wales): Trihalomethanes: 250μg/L (max), 191.2μg/L (average)
Midcoast Water: DRINKING WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ANNUAL REPORT SUMMARY 2016-2017
Bulahdelah (New South Wales): Trihalomethanes: 257μg/L (max), 190.76μg/L (average)
Bulahdelah water supply achieved 97.7% of water quality results in the reticulation system meeting ADWG, compared to 100% during 2016 – 2017. There were 349 analytes tested for verification monitoring within the Bulahdelah system.
Total THMs were above the ADWG value on two occasions during summer. Increased levels of naturally occurring dissolved organic carbon in Crawford River during the warmer months contributed to the higher levels of THMs.
Midcoast Water: DRINKING WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ANNUAL REPORT SUMMARY 2017-2018
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
2017/18 – Bulahdelah (New South Wales) – Iron
2017/18 – Bulahdelah (New South Wales) – Iron 0.324 (max), 0.036 (av.)
On six occasions from March – May, concentrations of metals (aluminium, iron and manganese) were above ADWG values in this supply. This was due to an exceptional water quality event in Crawford River, including low dissolved oxygen and high metals. A full explanation is provided in 6.1 Bulahdelah water quality incident.
ADWG Guideline: 0.3mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Under section 58(6) of the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 (POEO) the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) has received public submissions on the proposed variation to the Environment Protection Licence (EPL No. 726) held by Clarence Colliery Pty Ltd for the operation of Clarence Colliery near Lithgow. The proposed variation is focusing on the discharge of pollutants into the Wollangambe River. The Environment Protection Authority is proposing to vary the Environment Protection Licence to put in place limits on nickel, salinity, and temperature of the discharge, as well as introduce a legally-binding Pollution Reduction Program requiring the company to reduce the concentration of pollutants in the discharge.
The period for public submissions to the Environment Protection Authority’s review of the Environment Protection Licence (EPL 726) held by Clarence Colliery Pty. Ltd closed on 21 November 2014. The Environment Protection Authority is reviewing those submissions and will progressively be displaying information at this site.
Clarence Colliery summary of public submissions
The Environment Protection Authority received 130 public submissions after it publicly advertised its review of Environment Protection Licence (EPL) No. 726 for Clarence Colliery Pty Ltd. The public exhibition was for four weeks between 21 October and 24 November 2014.
The Environment Protection Authority is fulfilling its responsibilities under Section 78 of the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 (POEO) in undertaking the five year review of the EPL for Clarence Colliery. Given that variations are likely to be required and there is potential that the licence will authorise a significant impact on the environment and the proposed variation has not been the subject of an environmental assessment and public consultation under the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979, by advertising the proposed licence variation and seeking public comment, the Environment Protection Authority has fulfilled its responsibilities under Section 58(6) of the POEO Act.
The Environment Protection Licence authorises, among other things, the discharge of mine water from Clarence Colliery into the Wollangambe River which then flows through the Blue Mountains National Park, a part of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area.
Public Submissions
A summary of the public submissions is provided below.
Seventy seven (59 per cent) of the 130 were form letters. The form letter expressed these points
the Wollangambe is a declared Wild River
the EPA’s responsibility is to protect it from wastewater discharged by Clarence Colliery
Clarence Colliery is polluting the Wollangambe River and degrading the river’s biodiversity
EPL 726 fails to impose meaningful discharge limits on key pollutants
research by Dr Ian Wright shows increases in salinity, nickel, zinc, pH and water temperature and these need to be addressed in the revised licence
the discharge should be similar to water above the discharge point
the revised EPL should be a benchmark or standard for all future colliery licences.
Of the remaining submissions, the following points have been raised
the value of the Wollangambe River as a sensitive environmental resource which needs protection, it should be pristine and unpolluted
the impact of zinc, nickel, pH, salinity and temperature of the mine water charged from Clarence Colliery on the aquatic ecosystem of the Wollangambe River
the impact on species diversity and abundance in the river below the mine (the subject of research by Dr I.A. Wright, University of Western Sydney and colleagues)
the EPA not properly regulating Clarence Colliery, and it should tighten the conditions of the EPL, with support for the addition of nickel, salinity and temperature, a Pollution Reduction Program to improve the quality of the discharge
any pollution should cease
the presence of the mine is incompatible with the values of a catchment which contains a World Heritage listed area
concerns about the use of mine water to supplement the drinking water of Lithgow and potential impacts on human health
the EPA should be guided by ANZECC 2000 in structuring the limit conditions of the licence.
Clarence Colliery Discharge Investigation – report by the Office of Environment and Heritage
In 2014 the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) commissioned a report by the Office of Environment and Heritage (OEH) to help inform its review of the Environment Protection Licence (EPL 726) for Clarence Colliery near Lithgow.
The OEH report provides an independent assessment of the state of the Wollangambe River, including upstream and downstream of where the colliery discharges quantities of mine water.
The EPA will use the findings in the report to require Centennial Coal to undertake an environmental improvement program to address the water quality issues identified by OEH.
The environmental improvement program will be formalised and new conditions added to the licence which will ensure the water quality and the ecology of the Wollangambe River is protected for future generations.
To assess the health risks associated with consumption of drinking water with elevated nickel concentration in a NSW country town named Sampleton.
METHODS:
We used enHealth Guidelines (2002) as our risk assessment tool. Laboratory test results for nickel in water samples were compared with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2004 and the World Health Organization’s (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 2005.
RESULTS:
The mean nickel concentration in the drinking water samples tested over a 4-year period (2002-2005) was 0.03 mg/L (95% CI: 0.02-0.04). The average daily consumption of two litres of water by a 70-kg adult provided 0.06 mg (0.03 mg x 2) of nickel, which was only 7% of the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) based on experiments on nickel-sensitive people in a fasting state.
CONCLUSIONS:
The mean nickel concentration in drinking water appears to have no health risks for the inhabitants of Sampleton
Boral has just days to tell the environment watchdog what it will do about zinc, nickel and manganese leaching into a river in NSW southern highland.
Multinational company Boral has been told to take urgent action to stop pollution flowing from a disused mine site into the Wingecarribee river in the New South Wales southern highlands.
Boral now has three days left to tell the state’s environmental watchdog, the Environment Protection Authority (EPA), what it will do to stop zinc, nickel and manganese leaching into the river, which is part of Sydney’s drinking water catchment.
Wright described the zinc contamination as the worst he had seen, and criticised the “soft, almost meaningless” environmental regulations applied to the mine, which include no limits on the leaching of heavy metals into the river.
He fears contamination at disused mine sites will be seen across the country in coming years.
“Whether we like it or not, a lot of coalmines are closing down; I think this is a harbinger of things to come,” Wright told Guardian Australia. “We can’t just keep dumping untreated or poorly treated mine waste into a river – the community is demanding better than that.”
The coalmine operated from the late 1800s until 2013, perched above the river near the small villages of Medway and Berrima. It is close by to another proposed underground coalmine, Hume Coal, which Wright has similar concerns about.
Boral is still in the process of closing the site, which requires negotiations with the state government.
Wright tested water nearby earlier this year, and discovered the contamination had worsened considerably since the mine shut down.
The mine is still releasing about 30 litres of drainage a second, Wright said, the equivalent of about an Olympic swimming pool a day.
He said the discharge, given the current dry spell, was accounting for 20% to 25% of the river’s flow.
Wright’s report, handed to NSW authorities and the company in August, found zinc was being discharged, on average, at 27 times above the safe level.
“That’s the highest I’ve ever recorded coming out of a mine, and I’m studying eight of them at the moment. So I know the topic fairly well,” Wright said. “I’ve had to go to international literature to find something like this.”
Manganese was “off the chart” and higher than anything Wright had seen in Australia or abroad. Nickel concentrations in the river had doubled since the mine’s closure, and were well above safe levels.
After receiving Wright’s report, the EPA varied the mine’s licence in late September to force Boral to provide a written action plan for addressing the contamination by 13 October.
“There has been a degradation in water quality discharging from the Berrima mine since mid-2016 after old mine workings were flooded,” an EPA spokeswoman said.
“This degradation is due to naturally occurring minerals found in the geology of the area, including zinc, nickel, manganese and salt, rather than from active coalmining.
“The EPA is committed to determining the best course of action to address this mine discharge.”
Wright commended the EPA’s decision to intervene, saying it ought to be congratulated for taking action on a non-operational mine site. He also praised Boral, who he said had provided him with data to help compose his report, and appeared intent on dealing with the pollution, unlike many other companies.
But he said it should not have been discovered by a researcher like himself: “I’d rather not do this, I think it should be done independently by an independent body.
“I think it’s appropriate to have completely independent assessments, completely independent of government, like an Icac for pollution.
“I’m open in criticising the EPA because they have no limits on the most hazardous elements from this mine. Nothing.”
In a statement, Boral said it would work closely with the EPA and the state authorities on the closure.
“The mine, which had been operating for more than 50 years before Boral acquired it, ceased all mining operations in 2013,” the company said.
“Since then, it has been on care and maintenance, while we work with state authorities – including the EPA – on developing a mine closure plan.”
Boral said it would keep the local community informed about the site, including on water quality.
Residents of a NSW town are calling for council to take action on murky, black water which “looks like Coke”.
People from Lithgow, in the NSW Central Tablelands, have started a Change.org petition demanding local government “rebuild Lithgow’s failing water delivery system”.
“I am sick to death of throwing away whites even after I have soaked them,” one woman wrote on the petition.
A resident of nearby McKellars Park wrote on Facebook her kids had to skip having a bath due to the dark, murky water in the tub.
Another added her bath was “black this morning, not nice” while another complained her tub water was “milky white”.
Mum Michelle Potts told Nine.com.au she recently ran a bath for her baby daughter but when she came back the water was “gross”.
“It looked like Coke, that is how dark the colour of the water was,” she told the site.
A resident known as Ailette told 2GB the water stained her dog’s dishes.
She added she won’t drink the water either and has started buying it from the supermarket.
Lithgow City Council told Nine.com.au the water doesn’t pose a health risk and its colour is caused by a combination of iron and manganese sediment.
Mayor Ray Thompson said last week Council worked on “the completion of a number of water main and service repairs”.
“The community has experienced main breaks in the areas of Pillans Road and Wrights Road, as well as service failures in Wentworth Street and Wrights Road,” he said.
“Staff have also been working towards the cleanup of storm damage throughout Lithgow, Clarence and the Wolgan Valley, Capertee Valley and Hartley. Lastly, works have been undertaken to remove problematic plastic wheel stops at the Blast Furnace, Rail Interchange and Wallerawang Bakery car parks.”
Lithgow’s “mine water” supply exceeds drinking water standards (November 2017)
Lithgow on the western edge of the Blue Mountain is currently drinking “mine water” from the Clarence Colliery that sits on Newnes Plateau above the town. Despite Environment Protection Authority (EPA) assurances, the mine’s environmental monitoring data indicates that nickel and lead levels in the mine water exceed the recommended limits set by Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.
“In correspondence the EPA on October 20 stated that the Clarence Colliery’s mine water is considered “good quality drinking water in accordance with the Australian Drinking Water Guideline (ADWG)”. If the EPA had looked at the mine’s monthly monitoring data it would not have made this claim,” said Keith Muir director of the Colong Foundation for Wilderness.
“Centennial Coal’s monthly monitoring data shows pollution limits were exceeded in this mine discharge. A media release from the Lithgow City Council dated 5th October 2017 announcing the use of the mine water also states:
“… The water Clarence supplies to Lithgow is considered, good quality drinking water in accordance with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG).*”…
“The EPA has apparently just mouthed the words of the council’s media release without a basic check of company monitoring data to confirm the council’s claim,” Mr Muir said.
“The metal pollution limits for the Clarence mine discharges are now stricter than the ADWG limits, but these limits have been exceeded for lead and nickel# which raises questions about the safety of the town’s water supply”, Mr Muir said.
“The Lithgow should urgently seek a source of raw drinking that is less likely to be contaminated than this mine water discharge. In the meantime, EPA must rigidly enforce and improve the pollution discharge standards for this mine”, he said.
For more information contact: Keith Muir, (02) 9261 2400 (wk) or 0412 791 404 (mob)
LDP002 ADWG exceedances since 2017:
Nickel levels – 0.032 mg/L in September 2017; and 0.31 mg/L in July 2017 [ADWG limit is 0.02 mg/L)
Lead levels – 0.01 mg/L (at ADWG limit) in September 2017; 0.012 mg/L in July 2017; and 0.015 mg/L in February 2017
DOCTORS in Lithgow have protested against the use of industrial run-off in the town’s drinking water, saying it could be contributing to the area having some of the state’s worst rates of cancer, heart disease and other health problems.
All the town’s general practitioners have signed a letter to the local council saying that plans to increase the amount of recycled industrial water, including water used to flush out a coalmine, could be dangerous. No research has been done on possible links between heavy metals in the water and health effects.
The town began to add water extracted from the nearby Clarence Colliery to its drinking supply in 2002, to help make the town drought-proof. The council wants to nearly double the amount to more than 5 million litres a day.
“Lithgow residents unfortunately suffer from some of the worst health statistics in the state,” the doctors’ letter says. “It is reasonable to suspect that some of these adverse outcomes derive from environmental exposures relating to the region’s industrial activities.”
The NSW Government, which is responsible for issuing and updating pollution licences for coalmines, said the colliery had not exceeded its licence and that the council was in charge of providing healthy drinking water.
The Lithgow City Council maintains the water is safe, pointing out that most monthly quality tests in the past two years have shown no breaches of health guidelines. Drinking guidelines for aluminium content have been exceeded six times and iron once.
“Based on that information, I think we’re doing a very good job of meeting water guidelines,” said the council’s general manager, Roger Bailey.
But doctors told the Herald that residents often complained about the water and many preferred to rely on rainwater tanks. One doctor said he filtered his water at home because of concerns about the recycled industrial water.
Heart disease and cancer rates in Lithgow are 20 per cent above the state average, along with a range of other illnesses. Some of the high rates can be accounted for by smoking and lifestyle factors but the doctors believe pollution may play a role.
Richard Stiles, a GP, said he became concerned after reading a NSW Health bulletin that referred to nickel content in the Lithgow water supply.
It said the content was several times the guidelines for Australian drinking water although it posed no known human health hazard.
“We would really like to know exactly what is in the water, so it would be good to have some transparency on this,” Dr Stiles said.
Another signatory and the chairman of the Lithgow Medical Council, John Dearin, presented the doctors’ concerns to a council meeting on Monday night. “From a public health point of view, it concerns us,” Dr Dearin said.
“I believe we need to look at other sources of groundwater and other ways to augment the water supply instead of using water from the mine.”
Chris Jonkers, of the Lithgow Environment Group, said his home at Blackmans Flat, near Lithgow, was among properties to be put on the town water supply if plans to increase the use of recycled industrial water went ahead.
“I don’t want to give Lithgow a bad reputation but there seems to me to be a correlation between the pretty bad health figures and the use of industrial water,” Mr Jonkers said.
“It seems reasonable that we should be able to get that checked out.”
Gunnedah Shire Council issues a warning for Tambar Springs water
March 2 2018
TAMBAR SPRINGS residents are being warned that E. coli has been detected in a drinking water sample collected at Tambar Springs on February 28.
Gunnedah Shire Council (GSC) in conjunction with the NSW Department of Health is issuing a precautionary boiled water alert for the area.
E. coli in drinking water shows that the water may be contaminated with faeces and organisms that may cause gastrointestinal illness.
GSC’s water services manager Kevin Sheridan said immediate action is being taken by working with the NSW Department of Health to correct the situation.
“We are asking residents and businesses in the Tambar Springs village area, as a precautionary measure, to boil their water,” Mr Sheridan said….
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Source: Mackay Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2013/14. How was the community notified about this incident. What amounts of Diuron and Atrazine ended up in reticulation? What areas of Mackay had the highest levels and for how long? Were there health impacts eg pregnant women?
