E.Coli with a level of 71CFMU was detected at the Council office on 29/06/16.
It was suspected that that the sample water was contaminated, since E.Coli was not detected at other sites. There were also reported issues with the PaCl dosing at the WTP which were reported as a potential cause. Further follow up investigations in December revealed that water was being samped from property tanks rather than the mains, because the mains water was typically only turned on 1 day per week to fill the tanks. This incorrect procedure was corrected while the desal plant was operating, because this was constantly pumping water into the mains.
The Boil Water Alert at Erub was removed on 26/08/16
TSIRC Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
E.Coli with a level of 1 CFMU was recorded at V.Joseph’s house.
It was found that the chlorine was not monitored for 3 weeks by the realised water officer. The chlorine pump had gassed up and this hadn’t been realised by the relieving water officer.
The boil water alert at St Pauls was removed on 26/8/16.
TSIRC Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
E.Coli was detected at 4/5 locations and the failed readings were between 15 and 94.5 CFMU MPN.
It was found that there was inadequate chlorination, incorrect use of the pocket colorimeter and high turbidity through the mains. The high turbidity in the mains resulted from using water from the mud lagoons while their level was low, with a raw water turbidity which was too great for the single media filter to tolerate.
The Boil Water Notice at Saibai commenced on 20/01/16 and remains in place as of 19/12/16
TSIRC Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
E.Coli was detected at all 5 sample points at levels of between 1 and 5 CFMU.
It was much later confirmed that the numerous errors with chlorine sampling were being made and the water officers competence is currently being assessed to determine if the Boil Water Alert can be removed.
Water Officer underwent retraining. The chlorine pump was gassing up and needed to be checked regularly.
The Boil Water Notification was removed on 5/01/16.
12/1/16: Hammond (Queensland) – E.coli
E.Coli was detected at 3/5 locations – Water Shed, M.Loban house and Village tap. E.Coli levels were between 2 and 4.1CFMU.
E.Coli failures were ongoing throughout 2016 which were largely caused by chorine dosing issues, but high turbidity of the filtered well water was also thought to be a contributing factor for some failures which reduce the effectiveness of chlorination. Numerous errors in the chlorine sampling technique resulted a failure to identify the inadequate chlorination. It is suspected that there is an issue with the media filters, which is due to be addressed early in 2017.
The Boil Water Notice at Hammond was in place from 13/01/2016 to 21/11/16. The Boil Water Notice was lifted under the condition that the well water would not be used.
TSIRC Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
E.Coli was detected at levels of 36.4CFMU at the Aquis sampling point and 9.9CFMU at N. Mooka’s house.
A Boil Water Alert was issued on 15/01/16 and this still remains in place as of 19/12/16. A new water officer was hired recently and the water officer’s competence is currently being assessed to determine if the Boil Water Alert can be removed.
TSIRC Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
“E.Coli was detected at a level of 4CFMU at the Iama school.
The engineering officer monitored free chlorine levels which ranged from 0.26 to 0.38mg/L. The sample at the school was taken from the school tank during the school holidays when the usage was low. It was determined that the chlorine had most likely burned off in the tank due to low usage levels. Hypo 10 was added to the school storage tank. The sampling point was also moved to a location before the water storage tank.
The boil water alert was removed in August 2015.”
TSIRC Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
(exact date ?): Tully (Queensland) – E.coli: 1MPN/100ml
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2009/16 – Tully (Queensland) – Turbidity
2009/16: Tully (Queensland) – Turbidity 120NTU (max), 3.74NTU av.
19/7/16: Tully (Queensland) – Turbidity 108NTU (max) – 242.5mm of rainfall within 7 days
10/1/17: Tully (Queensland) – Turbidity 39.95NTU (max) – 621mm of rainfall within 4 days
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2009/11 – Cardwell (Queensland) – Turbidity
2009/11: Cardwell (Queensland) – Turbidity 17.5NTU (max), 1.98NTU av.
20/7/16: Cardwell (Queensland) – Turbidity 17.7 NTU, caused by 242.5mm rainfall in 7 days.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Free chlorine levels exceeding the health guideline value of 5.0 mg/L were measured on 8 December 2014 from the chlorine sampling point for the Athelstane Range Reservoir B. In situ free chlorine levels within the reservoir were measured at 5.4 and 8.8 mg/L. The short-lived spikes in free chlorine residual recorded during the event were caused by a power outage as a result of a recent thunderstorm and lightning strike which led to dosing occurring due to a faulty inlet flow meter.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2012/16 Nyleta (Queensland) – Iron
2012/16: Nyleta (Queensland) – Iron 0.56mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2012-16 – Nyleta (Queensland) – Colour
2012-16 Nyleta – Colour ~34HU (highest level), average 3.9
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
10/1/17: Innisfail (Queensland) – Turbidity 500NTU (max). Depletion of reservoirs due to inability to treat water above 1500NTU. 800mm in 3 days
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2001-11 – Innisfail (Queensland) – Colour
2001-11 Innisfail – Colour ~17HU (highest level), average 2.2
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
According to the ADWG 2011: “Based on health considerations, the concentration of monochloramine in drinking water should not exceed 3mg/L (equivalent to 4.1mg Cl as C12/L) [Note: this changed in 2015 to 5 mg Cl as C12/L]
Some water supplies may also be disinfected through a process called Chloramination where ammonia is added to the water prior to the chlorine, which in turn can create Monochloramines. Sunlight does not degrade Monochloramines to the same extent as chlorine, meaning that water can be stored for longer periods of time.
“Chloramines are produced by combining chlorine and ammonia…Chloramines are weaker disinfectants than chlorine, but are more stable, thus extending disinfectant benefits throughout a water utility’s distribution system. They are not used as the primary disinfectant for your water. Chloramines are used for maintaining a disinfectant residual in the distribution system so that disinfected drinking water is kept safe.
Chloramine can also provide the following benefits:
• Since chloramines are not as reactive as chlorine with organic material in water, they produce substantially lower concentrations of disinfection byproducts in the distribution system. Some disinfection byproducts, such as the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), may have adverse health effects at high levels. These disinfection byproducts are closely regulated by EPA. EPA recently reduced the allowable Maximum Contaminant Levels for total THMs to 80 ug/L (250ug/L in Australia) and now limit HAAs to 60 ug/L. The use of chlorine and chloramines is also regulated by the EPA. We have Maximum Residual Disinfectant Levels of 4.0 mg/L for both these disinfectants. However, our concern is not from their toxicity, but to assure adequate control of the disinfection byproducts.
• Because the chloramine residual is more stable and longer lasting than free chlorine, it provides better protection against bacterial regrowth in systems with large storage tanks and dead-end water mains.
• Chloramine, like chlorine, is effective in controlling biofilm, which is a slime coating in the pipe caused by bacteria. Controlling biofilms also tends to reduce coliform bacteria concentrations and biofilm-induced corrosion of pipes. • Because chloramine does not tend to react with organic compounds, many systems will experience less incidence of taste and odor complaints when using chloramine. (12)
“Chloramine (as CI2) is a water additive used to control microbes, particularly as a residual disinfectant in distribution system pipes. It is formed when ammonia is added to water containing free chlorine. Monochloramine is one form of chloramines commonly used for disinfection by municipal water systems. Other chloramines (di- and tri-) are not intentionally used to disinfect drinking water and are generally not formed during the drinking water disinfection process. Some people who use water containing chloramine in excess of the maximum residual disinfectant level could experience irritating effects to their eyes and nose, stomach discomfort or anemia.” (13)
“Although monochloramine has been shown to be mutagenic in some in vitro studies, it has not been found to be genotoxic in vivo. In the absence of data on human cancer and on the basis of inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of monochloramine in experimental animals, monochloramine was evaluated by IARC as not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity (Group 3). The US EPA classified monochloramine in group D, not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity, in that there is inadequate human and animal evidence. IPCS did not consider that the increase in mononuclear cell leukaemia was treatment-related. In the NTP bioassay in two species, the incidence of mononuclear cell leukaemias in female F344/N rats was increased, but no other increases in tumour incidence were observed”. (14)
According to the ADWG 2011: “Based on health considerations, the concentration of monochloramine in drinking water should not exceed 3mg/L (equivalent to 4.1mg Cl as C12/L). [Note this guideline changed to 5mg Cl as C12/L in 2015]
Some water supplies may also be disinfected through a process called Chloramination where ammonia is added to the water prior to the chlorine, which in turn can create Monochloramines. Sunlight does not degrade Monochloramines to the same extent as chlorine, meaning that water can be stored for longer periods of time.
“Chloramines are produced by combining chlorine and ammonia…Chloramines are weaker disinfectants than chlorine, but are more stable, thus extending disinfectant benefits throughout a water utility’s distribution system. They are not used as the primary disinfectant for your water. Chloramines are used for maintaining a disinfectant residual in the distribution system so that disinfected drinking water is kept safe.
Chloramine can also provide the following benefits:
• Since chloramines are not as reactive as chlorine with organic material in water, they produce substantially lower concentrations of disinfection byproducts in the distribution system. Some disinfection byproducts, such as the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), may have adverse health effects at high levels. These disinfection byproducts are closely regulated by EPA. EPA recently reduced the allowable Maximum Contaminant Levels for total THMs to 80 ug/L (250ug/L in Australia) and now limit HAAs to 60 ug/L. The use of chlorine and chloramines is also regulated by the EPA. We have Maximum Residual Disinfectant Levels of 4.0 mg/L for both these disinfectants. However, our concern is not from their toxicity, but to assure adequate control of the disinfection byproducts.
• Because the chloramine residual is more stable and longer lasting than free chlorine, it provides better protection against bacterial regrowth in systems with large storage tanks and dead-end water mains.
• Chloramine, like chlorine, is effective in controlling biofilm, which is a slime coating in the pipe caused by bacteria. Controlling biofilms also tends to reduce coliform bacteria concentrations and biofilm-induced corrosion of pipes. • Because chloramine does not tend to react with organic compounds, many systems will experience less incidence of taste and odor complaints when using chloramine. (12)
“Chloramine (as CI2) is a water additive used to control microbes, particularly as a residual disinfectant in distribution system pipes. It is formed when ammonia is added to water containing free chlorine. Monochloramine is one form of chloramines commonly used for disinfection by municipal water systems. Other chloramines (di- and tri-) are not intentionally used to disinfect drinking water and are generally not formed during the drinking water disinfection process. Some people who use water containing chloramine in excess of the maximum residual disinfectant level could experience irritating effects to their eyes and nose, stomach discomfort or anemia.” (13)
“Although monochloramine has been shown to be mutagenic in some in vitro studies, it has not been found to be genotoxic in vivo. In the absence of data on human cancer and on the basis of inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of monochloramine in experimental animals, monochloramine was evaluated by IARC as not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity (Group 3). The US EPA classified monochloramine in group D, not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity, in that there is inadequate human and animal evidence. IPCS did not consider that the increase in mononuclear cell leukaemia was treatment-related. In the NTP bioassay in two species, the incidence of mononuclear cell leukaemias in female F344/N rats was increased, but no other increases in tumour incidence were observed”. (14)
(14) Monochloramine in Drinking-water Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinkingwater Quality 2004
Strathalbyn (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
Average pH: 2016 July-2017 June: 8.515 pH units
2018/19: Strathalbyn (South Australia). Average pH: 8.618pH units
2019/20: Strathalbyn pH (average) 8.8pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
When pH is below 6.5 or above 11, the water may corrode plumbing fittings and pipes. This, however, will depend on other factors such as the material used, the concentration and type of ions in solution, the availability of oxygen, and the water temperature. Under some conditions, particularly in the presence of strong oxidising agents such as chlorine, water with a pH between 6.5 and 7 can be quite corrosive.
Chlorine disinfection efficiency is impaired above pH 8.0, although the optimum pH for monochloramine disinfectant formation is between 8.0 and 8.4. In chloraminated supplies chlorine can react with ammonia to form odorous nitrogen trichloride below pH 7.
Chlorination of water supplies can decrease the pH, while it can be significantly raised by lime leached from new concrete tanks or from pipes lined with asbestos cement or cement mortar. Values of pH above 9.5 can cause a bitter taste in drinking water, and can irritate skin if the water is used for ablutions.
Strathalbyn (South Australia) – Ammonia
30/10/20: Strathalbyn (South Australia) Ammonia – Free – as NH3 0.5mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
Average Monochloramine levels for Loxton over 6 year period are 3.219mg/L – 21% below the 4.1mg/L ADWG guideline. February – July 2011 marked above guideline levels at Loxton.
According to the ADWG 2011: “Based on health considerations, the concentration of monochloramine in drinking water should not exceed 3mg/L (equivalent to 4.1mg Cl as C12/L). [Note in 2015 this was changed to3mg/L equivalent to 5mg Cl as C12/L]
Some water supplies may also be disinfected through a process called Chloramination where ammonia is added to the water prior to the chlorine, which in turn can create Monochloramines. Sunlight does not degrade Monochloramines to the same extent as chlorine, meaning that water can be stored for longer periods of time.
Between January 2000 and July 2012, SA Water recorded over 50 incidences of
Monochloramines breaching or the same as the 2011 ADWG.
“Chloramines are produced by combining chlorine and ammonia…Chloramines are weaker disinfectants than chlorine, but are more stable, thus extending disinfectant benefits throughout a water utility’s distribution system. They are not used as the primary disinfectant for your water. Chloramines are used for maintaining a disinfectant residual in the distribution system so that disinfected drinking water is kept safe.
Chloramine can also provide the following benefits:
• Since chloramines are not as reactive as chlorine with organic material in water, they produce substantially lower concentrations of disinfection byproducts in the distribution system. Some disinfection byproducts, such as the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), may have adverse health effects at high levels. These disinfection byproducts are closely regulated by EPA. EPA recently reduced the allowable Maximum Contaminant Levels for total THMs to 80 ug/L (250ug/L in Australia) and now limit HAAs to 60 ug/L. The use of chlorine and chloramines is also regulated by the EPA. We have Maximum Residual Disinfectant Levels of 4.0 mg/L for both these disinfectants. However, our concern is not from their toxicity, but to assure adequate control of the disinfection byproducts.
• Because the chloramine residual is more stable and longer lasting than free chlorine, it provides better protection against bacterial regrowth in systems with large storage tanks and dead-end water mains.
• Chloramine, like chlorine, is effective in controlling biofilm, which is a slime coating in the pipe caused by bacteria. Controlling biofilms also tends to reduce coliform bacteria concentrations and biofilm-induced corrosion of pipes. • Because chloramine does not tend to react with organic compounds, many systems will experience less incidence of taste and odor complaints when using chloramine. (12)
“Chloramine (as CI2) is a water additive used to control microbes, particularly as a residual disinfectant in distribution system pipes. It is formed when ammonia is added to water containing free chlorine. Monochloramine is one form of chloramines commonly used for disinfection by municipal water systems. Other chloramines (di- and tri-) are not intentionally used to disinfect drinking water and are generally not formed during the drinking water disinfection process. Some people who use water containing chloramine in excess of the maximum residual disinfectant level could experience irritating effects to their eyes and nose, stomach discomfort or anemia.” (13)
“Although monochloramine has been shown to be mutagenic in some in vitro studies, it has not been found to be genotoxic in vivo. In the absence of data on human cancer and on the basis of inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of monochloramine in experimental animals, monochloramine was evaluated by IARC as not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity (Group 3). The US EPA classified monochloramine in group D, not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity, in that there is inadequate human and animal evidence. IPCS did not consider that the increase in mononuclear cell leukaemia was treatment-related. In the NTP bioassay in two species, the incidence of mononuclear cell leukaemias in female F344/N rats was increased, but no other increases in tumour incidence were observed”. (14)
(14) Monochloramine in Drinking-water Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinkingwater Quality 2004
Loxton (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
Average pH: 2016 July -2017 June: 8.775 pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
When pH is below 6.5 or above 11, the water may corrode plumbing fittings and pipes. This, however, will depend on other factors such as the material used, the concentration and type of ions in solution, the availability of oxygen, and the water temperature. Under some conditions, particularly in the presence of strong oxidising agents such as chlorine, water with a pH between 6.5 and 7 can be quite corrosive.
Chlorine disinfection efficiency is impaired above pH 8.0, although the optimum pH for monochloramine disinfectant formation is between 8.0 and 8.4. In chloraminated supplies chlorine can react with ammonia to form odorous nitrogen trichloride below pH 7.
Chlorination of water supplies can decrease the pH, while it can be significantly raised by lime leached from new concrete tanks or from pipes lined with asbestos cement or cement mortar. Values of pH above 9.5 can cause a bitter taste in drinking water, and can irritate skin if the water is used for ablutions.
29/12/05: Morgan Monochloramines 5mg/L (highest levels only)
16/4/03: Morgan Monochloramines 4.8mg/L
According to the ADWG 2011: “Based on health considerations, the concentration of monochloramine in drinking water should not exceed 3mg/L (equivalent to 4.1mg Cl as C12/L), [note guideline changed to 5mg Cl in 2015].
Some water supplies may also be disinfected through a process called Chloramination where ammonia is added to the water prior to the chlorine, which in turn can create Monochloramines. Sunlight does not degrade Monochloramines to the same extent as chlorine, meaning that water can be stored for longer periods of time.
Between January 2000 and July 2012, SA Water recorded over 50 incidences of
Monochloramines breaching or the same as the 2011 ADWG.
“Chloramines are produced by combining chlorine and ammonia…Chloramines are weaker disinfectants than chlorine, but are more stable, thus extending disinfectant benefits throughout a water utility’s distribution system. They are not used as the primary disinfectant for your water. Chloramines are used for maintaining a disinfectant residual in the distribution system so that disinfected drinking water is kept safe.
Chloramine can also provide the following benefits:
• Since chloramines are not as reactive as chlorine with organic material in water, they produce substantially lower concentrations of disinfection byproducts in the distribution system. Some disinfection byproducts, such as the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), may have adverse health effects at high levels. These disinfection byproducts are closely regulated by EPA. EPA recently reduced the allowable Maximum Contaminant Levels for total THMs to 80 ug/L (250ug/L in Australia) and now limit HAAs to 60 ug/L. The use of chlorine and chloramines is also regulated by the EPA. We have Maximum Residual Disinfectant Levels of 4.0 mg/L for both these disinfectants. However, our concern is not from their toxicity, but to assure adequate control of the disinfection byproducts.
• Because the chloramine residual is more stable and longer lasting than free chlorine, it provides better protection against bacterial regrowth in systems with large storage tanks and dead-end water mains.
• Chloramine, like chlorine, is effective in controlling biofilm, which is a slime coating in the pipe caused by bacteria. Controlling biofilms also tends to reduce coliform bacteria concentrations and biofilm-induced corrosion of pipes. • Because chloramine does not tend to react with organic compounds, many systems will experience less incidence of taste and odor complaints when using chloramine. (12)
“Chloramine (as CI2) is a water additive used to control microbes, particularly as a residual disinfectant in distribution system pipes. It is formed when ammonia is added to water containing free chlorine. Monochloramine is one form of chloramines commonly used for disinfection by municipal water systems. Other chloramines (di- and tri-) are not intentionally used to disinfect drinking water and are generally not formed during the drinking water disinfection process. Some people who use water containing chloramine in excess of the maximum residual disinfectant level could experience irritating effects to their eyes and nose, stomach discomfort or anemia.” (13)
“Although monochloramine has been shown to be mutagenic in some in vitro studies, it has not been found to be genotoxic in vivo. In the absence of data on human cancer and on the basis of inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of monochloramine in experimental animals, monochloramine was evaluated by IARC as not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity (Group 3). The US EPA classified monochloramine in group D, not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity, in that there is inadequate human and animal evidence. IPCS did not consider that the increase in mononuclear cell leukaemia was treatment-related. In the NTP bioassay in two species, the incidence of mononuclear cell leukaemias in female F344/N rats was increased, but no other increases in tumour incidence were observed”. (14)
(14) Monochloramine in Drinking-water Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinkingwater Quality 2004
Morgan (South Australia) – pH (alkaline)
Average pH: 2016 July -2017 June: 8.775 pH units
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
When pH is below 6.5 or above 11, the water may corrode plumbing fittings and pipes. This, however, will depend on other factors such as the material used, the concentration and type of ions in solution, the availability of oxygen, and the water temperature. Under some conditions, particularly in the presence of strong oxidising agents such as chlorine, water with a pH between 6.5 and 7 can be quite corrosive.
Chlorine disinfection efficiency is impaired above pH 8.0, although the optimum pH for monochloramine disinfectant formation is between 8.0 and 8.4. In chloraminated supplies chlorine can react with ammonia to form odorous nitrogen trichloride below pH 7.
Chlorination of water supplies can decrease the pH, while it can be significantly raised by lime leached from new concrete tanks or from pipes lined with asbestos cement or cement mortar. Values of pH above 9.5 can cause a bitter taste in drinking water, and can irritate skin if the water is used for ablutions.
2016: Bamaga Primary School (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
Primary School: THM result of 253 μg/L recorded 1/4/16. Operational THM monitoring has been undertaken at site utilising HACH THM plus method (10132). Whilst accurate for screening and formation potential testing, this method is not suitable for regulatory reporting. The field THM method has been undertaken as part of an initial risk assessment for disinfection by-products as this had previously been uncharacterised as part of a system assessment. It is recommended operational testing be transferred to a NATA accredited laboratory compliant to ISO17025. Regulatory reporting to DEWS should be considered for approved APHA procedures outlined in section 6232 A, B, C and D of the standard methods manual. Although a result >250μg/L has been noted a non-standard method has been applied in this case outside of contractual monitoring requirements with DILGP. Trend control analysis of the FY 2015 / 16 results indicatmonthly monitoring of THMs performed by a NATA accredited contract laboratory should be programmed for FY 2016 /17.
Drinking Water Quality Management Plan (DWQMP) Annual report – NPA Water Supply System FY 2015 / 2016
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Incident date 12/2/15: 1mpn/100ml at Bert Button Lookout. Likely cause extended detention times causing dissipation of chlorine.
Incident date 6/8/14: 1mpn/100ml at Bert Button Lookout. Likely cause extended detention times causing dissipation of chlorine.
Cherbourg Aboriginal Shire Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015?
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Incident date 5/2/14: 1mpn/100ml at Cherbourg Hospital Tap. Probable cause was a faulty chlorinator pump. Resamples clear.
Cherbourg Aboriginal Shire Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015?
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
2018/19: Cherbourg (Qld) – Chlorine
2018/19: Sample taken from yard in Cherbourg 5mg/L Free Chlorine (max), 1.73mg/L (mean)
2018/19: Sample taken from yard in Cherbourg 5mg/L Total Chlorine (max), 2.33mg/L (mean)
2018/19 Sample taken from Training Room kitchen tap 7.52mg/L Total Chlorine (max), 0.96mg/L (mean). 97.6% compliance
2018/19 Sample taken from Day Care kitchen tap 7.99mg/L Total Chlorine (max), 1.89mg/L (mean). 92.1% compliance
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2010 – Cherbourg (Queensland) – Manganese
2010 May – Cherbourg (Queensland) – Manganese ~0.3mg/L (high)
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2011 – Cherbourg – Turbidity
2011 February: Cherbourg – Turbidity ~20NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2015/16 – Kowanyama (Queensland) – Manganese 1.012mg/L (high), av. 0.135mg/L
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
Lead in water at Perth Children’s Hospital prompts national investigation
A NATIONAL probe into whether toxic lead is leaching into drinking water from plumbing inside Australian buildings is under way.
The Australian Building Codes Board has commissioned a research project to investigate potential sources of lead in plumbing materials.
Prompted by the Perth Children’s Hospital lead fiasco and concern about lead contamination in other buildings, the national regulator was asked to investigate the issue by the Building Ministers Forum, a body of Commonwealth, State and Territory ministers.
A recent report into the PCH debacle, stemming from a parliamentary inquiry, called for “urgent action to clarify whether the lead exceedances at PCH was an isolated event”.
Lead leaching from brass plumbing fittings “is a potentially significant public health issue”, it added.
ABCB chief executive Neil Savery said the project would also investigate the effect of water chemistry, quality and temperature on plumbing products/materials, the cumulative effect of multiple products/materials in a water service and the interaction of different products/materials.
The probe will also consider whether the relevant Australian Standards afford enough protection.
Australian Standards allow up to 4.5 per cent of lead content in materials that come into contact with potable water, whereas the US only allows up to 0.25 per cent because of increasing evidence of harm caused by low levels of lead in drinking water. Cheaper brass contains more lead.
WA Master Plumbers chief executive Murray Thomas said following the American step by reducing lead content to almost zero was the “logical pathway”.
However, the WA Government is still resisting calls to investigate the presence of lead in drinking water fountains at Optus Stadium.
Lead levels up to 14 times the Australian Drinking Water Guideline maximum of 0.01mg/L were found in samples collected by The Sunday Times and tested at accredited laboratories.
Building Commissioner Ken Bowron said the Optus Stadium fountains complied with Australia’s WaterMark Certification Scheme. Fountains at Whiteman Park closed last June after sampling revealed elevated lead levels. The taps and fittings, found to be the source of the contamination were also WaterMarked.
Deadly legionella bacteria found in Perth Children’s Hospital drinking water
A new problem has struck the trouble-plagued Perth Children’s Hospital with the potentially deadly legionella bacteria detected during routine water testing, as the Health Department grapples with an ongoing lead contamination issue.
Child and Adolescent Health Service chief executive Robyn Lawrence confirmed to the ABC that 14 instances of legionella had been found.
The bacteria was discovered in warm water outlets, a shower head and a drinking water fountain.
Legionella is found naturally in lakes and streams but can become a health concern when it grows and spreads in human-made water systems, including large plumbing systems.
People can contract Legionnaires’ disease — a severe, occasionally lethal form of pneumonia — when they breathe in small droplets of water that contain the bacteria.
The WA Australian Medical Association President Omar Khorshid said a Legionnaires’ disease outbreak could be serious.
“There have been deaths in Australia,” Dr Khorshid said.
“Unfortunately though legionnaires can affect the young and it can affect the healthy, so it’s very important to have it eradicated from the water systems.”
In a statement Dr Lawrence the “results detected were at the low end of the accepted scale” and the relevant authority would implement remediation strategies, but she did not detail what that would involve.
The positive samples were collected on October 19 and 20.
“The likely reason is a combination of low hot water temperatures and restricted flow due blocked aerators/inline strainers and/or a lack of flushing resulting in a biofilm build-up at the outlet that harbours and supports the colonisation of legionella,” she said.
A litany of problems
It is the latest in a string of issues for the hospital, ranging from asbestos in the roof panels to contractor disputes and faulty water piping.
It is currently costing taxpayers $6 million a month as it sits idle with no patients — that includes about $6000 a day in power bills and $700,000 a month to contractor Capella Parking for car bays that are sitting idle.
On top of these issues, WA health officials recently admitted a raft of other construction issues at the hospital during a budget estimates committee hearing.
These included problems at the on-site childcare facility, mental health unit, isolation rooms and anaesthetic gas delivery.
The WA Government is bracing itself for a lengthy legal battle in its bid to recoup millions of dollars from the head contractor of the hospital, John Holland, over long delays to the project.
Geelong water fountains shut off after high lead levels detected
Authorities say Geelong’s water supply is safe, despite high levels of lead being detected in the council’s public drinking fountains.
The City of Greater Geelong shut off 30 water bubblers and more than 140 are being tested across the municipality to determine the cause of the contamination, but the problem is confined to the fountains and not the wider water supply.
The elevated lead levels were discovered in March following testing of a random sample of drinking fountains.
It is not known how long the fountains have breached national guidelines.
Testing will continue but early indications are the affected fountains are those which are infrequently used, meaning water sits in the taps for extended periods of time.
“It appears that some of the parts that make up the tapware may be the cause,” Geelong mayor Bruce Harwood said.
“We are looking into that at the moment and there’ll be due diligence done about replacement of those (fountains) and also further monitoring.”
Water quality manager for Barwon Water, Dr Will Buchanan, said there was no issue with the water supply.
“We’ve got a rigorous monitoring program which maintains the quality of the water supplied,” he said.
Victoria’s Deputy Chief Health Officer Angie Bone said people should not be worried, even if they had consumed water from the affected fountains.
“While the levels detected in some of the fountains are above the health guideline value in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, they are not of immediate concern as drinking fountains are not the main source of drinking water,” Dr Bone said.
Department of Health and Human Services figures show of more than 300 cases of elevated blood-lead levels since 2010, only nine patients were from the Geelong region.
Full results are expected in the coming weeks and the council has started a program of flushing all drinking fountains that are still in operation.
“Use the fountains by all means, but give them a bit of a flush before you drink,” Cr Harwood said.
2016-17: Koala Court – North Lakes (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
In 2016-2017, there was one instance where the ADWG long-term health limit for Trihalomethanes – THM (0.25mg/L) was not met at a reticulation sampling site. Routine laboratory sampling identified the elevated result (0.28mg/L) at Koala Court, North Lakes. Further testing throughout the network confirmed there were no other elevated levels and this was an isolated event.
Disinfectant (i.e. chlorine) when added to water can react with naturally occurring organic material, to produce THMs. To mitigate this Unitywater has reviewed its secondary chlorine dosing strategy.
The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines states that THM concentrations fluctuating occasionally (for a day or two annually) up to 1 mg/L are unlikely to pose a significant health risk.
2017-18: Koala Court – North Lakes (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
Incident Description: There were two detections of high THM’s from routine samples taken on 6/3/2018. The two locations were the Boundary Rd 32ML Reservoir Dakabin (PN02RE) and Koala Cl North Lakes (PN19DS) with respective results of 0.33mg/L and 0.34mg/L.
Corrective & Preventative Actions: Both sites were supplied with water produced from the Petrie WTP, which through the deterioration of the WTP recorded higher levels of total organic carbon leaving the plant. The Petrie WTP has been decommissioned and the Pine North scheme is now supplied water through the Southern NPI, which will decrease the risk of THM formation in this area.
Follow up sample results: Follow up samples taken on the 23/3/2018 with the two affected sites recording results of 0.9mg/L and 0.99mg/L respectively.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Incident Description: Bromate – Forsayth – 0.040mg/L of Bromate was detected at the Forsayth library, which is over the health limit of .020mg/L, and incident DWI-7-49-00026 was opened. We have had no further detections over the health limit since then and only one detection of 0.016 mg/L, which was under the limit. We send updates along with detection levels to The Drinking Water regulators and Health Department monthly.
Corrective and Preventative Actions We turn over our chlorine as frequently as possible and keep it out of the sun. We have changed to purchasing hypo in 200L drums and aim to turn it over within 2 to 4 weeks when possible. This incident is ongoing at this stage while we continue to monitor. Detections seem to be rare.
GUIDELINE: Based on health considerations, the concentration of bromate in drinking water should not exceed 0.02 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Bromate is not a normal component of water but may be formed from bromide during ozonation. Concentrations up to 0.09 mg/L have been reported in ozonated drinking water. Bromate is a strong oxidant and will probably react with organic matter in water, forming bromide as a by-product.
Bromate is used in home hair permanent-wave neutralising solutions. Although it is used in some foods overseas, Australian Food Standards do not allow bromate to be used in food in Australia.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
It is unlikely that bromate would be present in Australian reticulated drinking water supplies unless ozonation is used for disinfection.
Forsayth (Queensland) – Aluminium
2015/16: Forsayth (Queensland) Aluminium 4.980mg/L (Highest Level Only), av. 0.526mg/L
Australian Guideline: Aluminium 0.2mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2018/19 Forsayth (Queensland) Incident Description: Chlorate – Forsayth. DWI-7-49-00015. We have an ongoing incident for the detection of Chlorate, which is a parameter with no water quality criteria. We regularly detect chlorate in the treated water. We send updates along with detection levels to The Drinking Water regulators and Health Department
monthly.
“… We have an ongoing incident for detection of Chlorate – a parameter with no water quality criteria taken from the Forsayth Library. 1.45, 3.13, 19.5, 8.04 & 1.59 Mg/L was/were detected. We are testing for chlorate quarterly and monitoring the situation. We turn over our chlorine as frequent as possible and keep it out of the sun. We are working towards upgrading our treatment plant”
Etheridge Shire Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
There was 1 ongoing incident at Forsayth for the detection of chlorate which is a parameter with no water quality criteria…Incident Description: Chlorate – Forsayth. DWI-7-49-00015. We have an ongoing incident for the detection of Chlorate which is a parameter with no water quality criteria. We regularly detect chlorate in the treated water. We send updates along with detection levels to The Drinking Water regulators and Health Department monthly.
Etheridge Shire Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2017/18
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
2015/18: Forsayth (Queensland) – Bromide
We have an ongoing incident for detection of Bromide – a parameter with no water quality criteria taken from the Forsayth Library. 0.009 Mg/L was/were detected. Corrective and Preventative Actions We are testing monthly at this stage and monitoring the situation. We turn over our chlorine as frequent as possible and keep it out of the sun.
Etheridge Shire Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
Incident Description: Bromide – Forsayth – 0.011mg/L of Bromide was detected at the Forsayth library which is a parameter with no water quality criteria and incident DWI-7-49-00022 was opened. We have had 1 detection 0f 0.006mg/L within the 14 monthly tests done since then. We send updates along with detection levels to The Drinking Water regulators and Health Department monthly.
Etheridge Shire Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2017/18
2018/19: Incident Description: Bromide – Forsayth DWI-7-49-00022. We have an ongoing incident for the detection of bromide, which is a parameter with no water quality criteria. Testing of the raw water shows continues detections. We send updates along with detection levels to The Drinking Water regulators and Health Department monthly.
Bromide can be involved in the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring
organic matter in drinking-water, forming brominated and mixed chloro-bromo by-
products, such as trihalomethanes or halogenated acetic acids, or it can react with
ozone to form bromate. The levels of bromide that can result in the formation of these
substances are well below the health-based values suggested above. This guidance
applies specifically to inorganic bromide ion and not to bromate or organohalogen
compounds, for which individual health-based guideline values have been developed.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2016/17 – Forsayth – Turbidity
2016/17: Forsayth – Turbidity 9.9NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2015/18 Forsayth (Queensland) – Iron
2015/16: Forsayth (Queensland) – Iron 0.437mg/L (max)
2017/18: Forsayth (Queensland) – Iron 1.6mg/L (max), 0.158mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2017/18 – Forsayth (Queensland) – Manganese
Incident Description: Manganese – Forsayth. – 0.583mg/L of Manganese was detected on the 21-10-2017 at reservoir outlet and 0.612mg/L at the Forsayth Library and incident DWI-7-49-00021 was opened. This happened because our aging DAF system was unable to perform with the raw water quality.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
“… ongoing incident for detection of Chlorate – a parameter with no water quality criteria taken from the Georgetown Rec Grounds. 0.367, 0.442, 1.70, 1.52 & 0.456 Mg/L was/were detected…We are testing for chlorate quarterly and monitoring the situation. We turn over our chlorine as frequent as possible and keep it out of the sun”
Etheridge Shire Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
Incident Description: Chlorate – Georgetown DWI-7-49-00014. We have an ongoing incident for detection of Chlorate – a parameter with no water quality criteria. We regularly detect chlorates in our treated water. We send updates along with detection levels to The Drinking Water regulators and Health Department monthly.
Etheridge Shire Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2017/18
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
2015/16: Georgetown (Queensland) – Bromide
We have an ongoing incident for detection of Bromide – a parameter with no water quality criteria taken from the Georgetown Rec Grounds. 0.008, & 0.013 Mg/L was/were detected.
Etheridge Shire Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
Incident Description: Bromide – Georgetown 0.017mg/L of Bromide which has no ADWG Health value was detected on the 15-11-2017 at the Georgetown rec Grounds and incident DWI-7-49-00023 was opened. Since then we have had 5 low detections within 12 monthly samples. We send updates along with detection levels to The Drinking Water regulators and Health Department monthly.
Etheridge Shire Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2017/18
Bromide can be involved in the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring
organic matter in drinking-water, forming brominated and mixed chloro-bromo by-
products, such as trihalomethanes or halogenated acetic acids, or it can react with
ozone to form bromate. The levels of bromide that can result in the formation of these
substances are well below the health-based values suggested above. This guidance
applies specifically to inorganic bromide ion and not to bromate or organohalogen
compounds, for which individual health-based guideline values have been developed.
Incident Description: Bromate – Georgetown 0.072mg/L of Bromate which has a ADWG Health limit of 0.02mg/L was detected on the 11-7-2018 at the Georgetown Rec Grounds L and incident DWI-7-49-00024 was opened. Since then we have had 0 detections over the health limit within 4 tests done monthly. We seem to have occasional detections.
GUIDELINE: Based on health considerations, the concentration of bromate in drinking water should not exceed 0.02 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Bromate is not a normal component of water but may be formed from bromide during ozonation. Concentrations up to 0.09 mg/L have been reported in ozonated drinking water. Bromate is a strong oxidant and will probably react with organic matter in water, forming bromide as a by-product.
Bromate is used in home hair permanent-wave neutralising solutions. Although it is used in some foods overseas, Australian Food Standards do not allow bromate to be used in food in Australia.
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
It is unlikely that bromate would be present in Australian reticulated drinking water supplies unless ozonation is used for disinfection.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2016/17 – Georgetown – Turbidity
2016/17: Georgetown – Turbidity 15.4NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2016/17 – MICC Town High (Mt Isa – Queensland) – Trichloroacetic Acid
On 7th June 2016, the result for trichloroacetic acid at sampling location MICC Town High (S29) was 110 µg/L. This result exceeded the ADWG health guideline limit of 100 µg/L. The result was reported to the DEWS Water Supply Regulation and recorded as incident DWI-7-199-00045. This incident remained open into the new financial year, with a further four tests returning high results in the tri-chloroacetic acid concentration noted on 4th July, 11th July, 13th July and 19th July 2016; with the results being 119, 130, 100 and 102 µg/L respectively. Concurrently Total Haloacetic Acids were also high for all samples between July 5 and August 2, 2016. The THAA exceedances were assessed against the new November 2016 revision of the ADWG and the incident was closed.
Incident Description: On January 31, 2017 the result for Total Haloacetic Acid (THAA) at sampling location MICC Town High (S29) was 0.2mg/l (152 µg/l) which exceeded the Queensland Health advised guideline limit of 0.1mg/l. The result was reported to the DEWS Water Supply Regulation and recorded as incident DWI-7-199-0046.
Corrective and preventative actions: MIWB informed the DEWS Water Supply Regulation of the incident within the incident notification timeframe. The MIWB’s operations and maintenance contractor was informed of the incident. Chlorine contact times were calculated for the primary disinfection tank and the target residual chlorine level was reduced in an effort to reduce the THAA formation. While the incident remained open, two further high readings were noted; one on February 21, and one on February 28, 2017. Both readings were 0.2mg/l (162µg/l each).
Incident Description: On April 24, 2017 the result for Total Haloacetic Acid (THAA) at sampling location MICC Town High (S29) was 0.2mg/l (154 µg/l) which exceeded the Queensland Health advised guideline limit of 0.1mg/l. The result was reported to the DEWS Water Supply Regulation; and recorded as incident DWI-7-199-0047.
Corrective and preventative actions: MIWB informed the DEWS Water Supply Regulation of the incident within the incident notification timeframe. The MIWB’s operations and maintenance Contractors were informed of the incident. Contact times were calculated in the primary disinfection tank and the target residual chlorine level was reduced. During the incident remaining open, four further high readings were noted on 23rd May, 29th May, 5th June and 13th June, 2017 with all of the results being 0.2mg/l (160, 158, 163 and 151 µg/L respectively). THAA sampling frequency was increased from monthly to weekly, and was incorporated into the new verification monitoring plan for the next financial year. An on-line chlorine analyser had also been installed to monitor the semi-treated water extracted from the 50ML tank. This allows more regular monitoring of the cool weather impacts of chlorine contact times which appear to be a key factor in DBP formation.
Mt Isa Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
ADWG Guideline: 0.1mg/L (100µg/L)
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
There are no epidemiological studies of TCA carcinogenicity in humans. Most of the human health data for chlorinated acetic acids concern components of complex mixtures of water disinfectant by-products. These complex mixtures of disinfectant by-products have been associated with increased potential for bladder, rectal, and colon cancer in humans [reviewed by Boorman et al. (1999); Mills et al. (1998)].” Ref: tmp/Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) CASRN 76-03-9 IRIS US EPA.htm
A treated water sample sourced from a tap immediately downstream of the Chillagoe Water Filtration Plant 2 Mar 2016, was found to have Lead in excess of the ADWG safe drinking level. The incident was reported** to the Regulator immediately upon MSC staff being notified by the Cairns Regional Council laboratory. As the raw water samples (taken on the same day) had negligible Lead concentrations, it was believed that the sample was an anomaly. Subsequent follow-up test results had trace amounts of lead present (0.002, <0.001 & 0.001 mg/L). The lead had not been previously found in significant concentrations in the Chillagoe drinking water supply and hasn’t been found in significant concentrations since.
The previously described Chillagoe Lead incident was reported to the Regulator Mar 2016 and was given the incident number DWI-7-557-00002. No action was taken after the incident was investigated and found to be an anomaly. There were no other incidents or events associated with the MSC potable water supplies reported to the regulator
Mareeba Shire – Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
A treated water sample, sourced from a tap immediately downstream of the Chillagoe Water Filtration Plant 8 Mar 2017, was found to have Lead in excess of the ADWG safe drinking level. The incident was reported** to the Regulator immediately upon MSC staff being notified by the Cairns Regional Council laboratory. As the raw water samples (taken on the same day) had negligible Lead concentrations (Bore1 0.003 mg/L & Bore3 0.002 mg/L) it was believed that the sample was an anomaly. A subsequent follow up test results had a trace amount of lead present (0.002 mg/L). Monthly tests for lead in the raw, backwash and treated water are currently being conducted with no exceedances in the treated water to date.
Mareeba Shire – Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
In the evening of Monday 8 August 2016 the gas injection system of the Chillagoe Water Treatment Plant faulted and shut down which in turn shut down the Arsenic Treatment Plant. MSC Water Officers investigated the following morning and notified management 1 pm Tuesday 9 August after determining that there was not going to be an immediate resolution. The WSR was notified at 1:07 PM Tuesday 9 August 2016 and a report submitted††.
Arsenic: Australian Drinking Water Guideline = 0.01mg/L
Arsenic is bioaccumulative and symptoms may take 10-15 years to develop after expsoure at high levels. Drinking water can be contaminated with inorganic arsenic through wind blown dust, leaching or runoff from soil, rocks and sediment. Groundwater sources such as bores will usually have higher arsenic levels than surface water. In major Australian reticulated water supplies concentrations of arsenic range up to 0.015mg/L, with typical values less than
0.005mg/L. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/ehu/2676.pdf
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Behana/Copperlode – Colour
2016/17: Behana/Copperlode – Colour 22 NTU
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2016/20 Behana/Copperlode (Queensland) – Iron
2016/17: Behana/Copperlode (Queensland) – Iron 0.6626mg/L (max)
2019/20: Behana/Copperlode (Queensland) – Iron 0.372mg/L (max) 0.008mg/L (av.)
“Aesthetic exceedance in December 2019 associated with dirty water event which often result from higher demand causing increased velocity and hence turbidity in water mains. Key augmentation projects were commissioned between OctoberDecember 2019 which increased turbidity in the network for a short period.” 2019-20 Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
A Manganese concentration of 0.8 mg/L was measured in the drinking water from the Glenmore Water Treatment Plant (GWTP) on 11 March 2015. A follow-up sample collected from the GWTP on the same day also exceeded the health guideline value of 0.5 mg/L. Fifteen (15) of the more than 250 samples collected from Rockhampton water supply scheme from 12 to 31 March were also non-compliant for manganese. The exceedances for manganese was due to the very low dissolved oxygen levels (<2 mg/L), high organic carbon load, and greater amounts of dissolved, organically complexed manganese ions in the source water flushed out from Alligator Creek following the Tropical Cyclone Marcia event.
“Aesthetic exceedance in February 2020 associated with dirty water event which often result from higher demand causing increased velocity and hence turbidity in water mains. Key augmentation projects were commissioned between October-December 2019 which increased turbidity in the network for a short period.” 2019-20 Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
“(51) Aesthetic exceedances associated with an interaction between the water and cement lined pipes in the reticulation network. Alkaline water above a pH of 8 can impair the efficiency of chlorine disinfection. Council closely monitor disinfection performance through testing microbial indicators to ensure the effectiveness of chlorine is not compromised by elevated pH”. 2019-2020 Drinking Water Quality Management Plant
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“Aesthetic exceedances are associated with drinking water event “Dirty Water Northern Beaches” please refer to section Notifying the Regulator” 2019-2020 Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
25/7/16: Grere Road, Mirriwinni. Presumptive Cryptosporidium. Investigation into the network occurred, system operating effectively to deactivate organisms. Resamples taken. Trend data analysed to determine system functioning adequately. Resample conducted and results assessed. The system will continue to be monitored and routine sampling will continue.
Cairns Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
2016/17: Mount View/Orchid Valley (Queensland) – Iron 0.421mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2016/20 – Mount View/Orchid Valley (Queensland) – Turbidity
2016/17: Mount View/Orchid Valley (Queensland) – Turbidity 8.3NTU (max)
2017/18: Mount View/Orchid Valley (Queensland) – Turbidity 11NTU (max), 0.9NTU (av)
2019/20: Mount View/Orchid Valley (Queensland) – Turbidity 5.5NTU (max), 0.53NTU (av). One result of 5.51 NTU exceeding the aesthetic maximum limit of 5 NTU in April 2020
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2017/18 – Mount View/Orchid Valley (Queensland) – Colour
2017/18: Mountain View/Orchid Valley (Queensland) – Colour. 33 Pt/Co (max)
“At times colour is above the ADWG guideline criteria….Generally the colour of treated water at GISC is below the ADWG value, however, large spikes were observed in January 2013 due to an increase in the concentration of manganese in the source water.”
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
1 number outside of spec results. Incident reported to the Regulator please refer to section Notifying the Regulator. 28/1/20 Notification of the detection of estimated 4 CFU/100mL E.coli in a routine verification monitoring sample at Fishery Falls. The sample was collected on a day of heavy rainfall, and a sterile field sample blank collected at the same location also detected E.coli, this is potentially indicative of sampling contamination in this case due to environmental conditions…
E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
28/8/17 – Fishery Falls (Queensland) – Chlorine
Notification of a noncompliance with the drinking water guidelines for chlorine. A routine sample collected on the 28/08/2017 had a chlorine residual of 7.0mg/L. Subsequent investigation of the chlorine analyser found an error resulting in the excessive dosing of
chlorine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2019/20 – Fishery Falls (Queensland) – Aesthetic exceedances occurring in July-August 2019
and May 2020 ranging from 8.5-8.9 pH
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2016/17 – Bellenden Ker (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2016/17 – Bellenden Ker (Queensland) – pH 9.5 (av. 2016/17)
2019/20 – Bennenden Ker (Queensland) – 17 non compliant samples. Aesthetic exceedances are
associated with an inter- action between the water and cement lined pipes in the reticulation network.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Bellenden Ker (Queensland) – Turbidity
2019/20: Bellenden Ker Turbidity 9.1NTU (12/12/19)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Notification of the detection of two presumptive and one confirmed Giardia spp. in a 10L sample collected on the 01/03/2017 at the Bruce Hwy. A resample collected on the
02/03/2018 detected one confirmed Cryptosporidium spp. Three subsequent samples collected on 03/03/2018, 04/03/2018 and 05/03/2018 indicated no presence of either Cryptosporidium spp. or Giardia spp.
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
4/7/16: Bartle Frere Road, tap on property. Cryptosporidium. A detailed inspection of the Reservoir was conducted internally and externally. A diver was engaged to assess the reservoir condition and no cause was able to be identified within the reservoir. – Boil Water Advisory was in place 4/07/2016, cancelled 8/7/2016 – trend data and system analysis occurred – re-sampling was conducted until three satisfactory results were obtained, Qld Health and DEWS were consulted to ensure they were satisfied with results (07/07/2016)
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
18/9/17 – Bartle Frere (Queensland) – Giardia
Notification of the detection of one presumptive Giardia spp. in a 10L sample collected on the 15/09/2017 at Bartle Frere Rd. A resample collected on the 18/09/2017 indicated no presence of Giardia spp.
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2016/17 – Bartle Frere – Turbidity
2016/17: Bartle Frere – Turbidity 5.1NTU (max)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2018/19: Prairie (Queensland) – Lead <0.13mg/L (max) 0.0166mg/L (mean).
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Prairie (Queensland) – Iron
2016/17: Prairie (Queensland) – Iron 1.2mg/L
2018/19: Prairie (Queensland) – Iron 9.2mg/L (max), 0.975mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2016/19 – Prairie (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Prairie (Queensland) – Heptachlor
2017/18: Prairie (Queensland) Total Heptachlor 0.371ug/L (mean)
2017/18 Drinking Water Quality Management Plan Flinders Shire Council
Heptachlor is a broad spectrum insecticide used in Australia until September 1994 to protect wooden structures against termites. Its other former uses were withdrawn in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Heptachlor epoxide, an oxidation product of heptachlor, is not commercially available.
Heptachlor is moderately persistent in soil. It is transformed slowly to the epoxide, which is very resistant to further chemical or biological degradation.
Heptachlor has been detected at low nanogram per litre concentrations in water supplies in Europe and the United States. It has been found in a number of foods including human milk. The daily adult intake for heptachlor and the epoxide in the United States has been estimated at about 0.000007 mg/day (7 ng/day) and 0.0002 mg/day respectively. The 1990 Australian Market Basket Survey did not find heptachlor or the epoxide in any of the foods tested (NHMRC and NFA 1991).
TYPICAL VALUES IN AUSTRALIAN DRINKING WATER
Heptachlor has not been detected in major Australian drinking water supplies.
Cobalt, Strontium and Thallium and Vanadium were detected at Torrens Creek while Strontium was detected at Prairie and Hughenden.The detection of these parameters was discussed with Qld Health who have provided Council with advice and guideline values for these parameters. The general advice was that detections of Strontium and Cobalt need not be reported and that a Guideline value for Thallium is provided by the USEPA (0.0005 mg/L). The guideline value for Vanadium is based on the Californian EPA’s value of 0.015mg/L.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Torrens Creek Incident: Incident Description:Initial incident occurred at a Private (outside) tap in the Torrens Creek reticulation network. A reading of 0.031mg/L was recorded on the 26/02/2014. Additional tests at the bore and within the network revealed readings below the health limit.
p29. 3 lead samples listed as breaching water quality criteria. highest reading of 0.24mg/L (av. 0.012mg/L
Flinders Shire Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2014/15
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Iron
2016/17: Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Iron 2.6mg/L (max)
2017/18: Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Iron 14mg/L (max), 2.8225mg/L (av.)
2018/19: Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Iron 5.2mg/L (max), 5.2mg/L (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Torrens Creek – Turbidity
2016/17: Torrens Creek – Turbidity 18NTU (max), 6.27NTUav.
2017/18: Torrens Creek – Turbidity 91NTU (max), 16.625NTU av.
2018/19: Torrens Creek – Turbidity 10NTU (max), 10NTU av.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Fluoride
2017/18: Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Fluoride 32mg/L (max), 4.075mg/L (av.)
[these fluoride levels seem excessively high. perhaps a misprint in the DWQMP?
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Thallium
2017/18: Torrens Creek Source (Queensland) – Thallium 0.0003mg/L, 0.00025mg/L
2017/18: Torrens Creek Reticulation (Queensland) – Thallium 0.0008mg/L, 0.000263mg/L
Cobalt, Strontium and Thallium and Vanadium were detected at Torrens Creek while Strontium was detected at Prairie and Hughenden.The detection of these parameters was discussed with Qld Health who have provided Council with advice and guideline values for these parameters. The general advice was that detections of Strontium and Cobalt need not be reported and that a Guideline value for Thallium is provided by the USEPA (0.0005 mg/L). The guideline value for Vanadium is based on the Californian EPA’s value of 0.015mg/L.
Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Cobalt
2017/18: Torrens Creek Source (Queensland) Cobalt 0.0009mg/L (max), 0.00075mg/L (av.)
2017/18: Torrens Creek Reticulation (Queensland) Cobalt 0.0023mg/L (max), 0.0006mg/L (av.)
2018/19: Torrens Creek Reticulation (Queensland) Cobalt 0.0013mg/L (max), 0.0013mg/L (av.)
Cobalt, Strontium and Thallium and Vanadium were detected at Torrens Creek while Strontium was detected at Prairie and Hughenden.The detection of these parameters was discussed with Qld Health who have provided Council with advice and guideline values for these parameters. The general advice was that detections of Strontium and Cobalt need not be reported and that a Guideline value for Thallium is provided by the USEPA (0.0005 mg/L). The guideline value for Vanadium is based on the Californian EPA’s value of 0.015mg/L.
Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Strontium
2017/18: Torrens Creek Source (Queensland) Strontium 0.071mg/L (max), 0.03275mg/L (av.)
2017/18: Torrens Creek Reticulation (Queensland) Strontium 0.027mg/L (max), 0.021875mg/L (av.)
2018/19: Torrens Creek Reticulation (Queensland) Strontium 0.026mg/L (max), 0.026mg/L (av.)
Cobalt, Strontium and Thallium and Vanadium were detected at Torrens Creek while Strontium was detected at Prairie and Hughenden.The detection of these parameters was discussed with Qld Health who have provided Council with advice and guideline values for these parameters. The general advice was that detections of Strontium and Cobalt need not be reported and that a Guideline value for Thallium is provided by the USEPA (0.0005 mg/L). The guideline value for Vanadium is based on the Californian EPA’s value of 0.015mg/L.
Torrens Creek (Queensland) – Vanadium
2017/18: Torrens Creek Source (Queensland) Vanadium 0.0006mg/L (max), 0.00045mg/L (av.)
2017/18: Torrens Creek Reticulation (Queensland) Vanadium 0.0025mg/L (max), 0.0005mg/L (av.)
2018/19: Torrens Creek Reticulation (Queensland) Vanadium 0.001mg/L (max), 0.001mg/L (mean)
Cobalt, Strontium and Thallium and Vanadium were detected at Torrens Creek while Strontium was detected at Prairie and Hughenden.The detection of these parameters was discussed with Qld Health who have provided Council with advice and guideline values for these parameters. The general advice was that detections of Strontium and Cobalt need not be reported and that a Guideline value for Thallium is provided by the USEPA (0.0005 mg/L). The guideline value for Vanadium is based on the Californian EPA’s value of 0.015mg/L.
Torrens Creek (Queensland) – pH (acidic)
2018/19: Torrens Creek (Queensland) 6.49pH (mean)
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Incident Description: The non-compliance was a detection of E.coli from a routine sample taken on the 23/11/2016 at an outside tap located on the Western side of the Helicopter pad. 7.5 mpn
E.coli organisms were detected, with a disinfection level of 0mg/L.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: The non-compliance was reported to the regulators, Qld Health and the DON. The Reservoir was dosed again and follow samples were taken. Dosing in Hughenden was increased to 3 times a week. The Hospital now has their own disinfection system to ensure they maintain chlorine residuals in excess of 0.5mg/L
Flinders Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2014/16: Hughenden (Queensland) – Lead
2014/15: Hughenden (Queensland) Reticulation – Lead 0.012mg/L(max), 0.0009 (mean)
2015/16: Hughenden (Queensland) Reticulation – Lead 0.01mg/L(max), 0.0009 (mean)
2014/15: Hughenden Incident Incident Description: A reading of 0.012mg/L was detected.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: The tap and the reticulation mains were flushed. Further
samples were taken. Other samples taken from different points in the reticulation were compared against the samples form the WTP. The other samples taken on the same day and the additional samples taken from the WTP reported below the Health limit. Council now regularly flushes the water mains in order to assist in the movement of sediment in the mains. Regularly testing of the reticulation network occurs.
Flinders Shire Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2014/15 + 2015/16
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Hughenden (Queensland) – Antimony
2016/17: Hughenden (Queensland) – Antimony 0.086mg/L “(Bore 2 returned a reading of 0.0086 mg/L. All remaining bores and reticulation samples returned readings of <0.0001mg/L. After discussing exceedance with Council’s designated regulator contact it was determined that the exceedance was not reportable as it had diluted before it reached the reticulation).” Flinders Shire Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17.
Antimony: ADWG Guideline 0.003mg/L. Antimony shows similar toxic effects as arsenic. Can be a problem with antimony-tin solder.
Hughenden (Queensland) – Iron
2016/17: Hughenden (Queensland) – Iron 5.6mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Hughenden (Queensland) – Strontium
2017/18: Hughenden raw water (Queensland) Strontium 0.12mg/L (max), 0.100533mg/L (av.)
Cobalt, Strontium and Thallium and Vanadium were detected at Torrens Creek while Strontium was detected at Prairie and Hughenden.The detection of these parameters was discussed with Qld Health who have provided Council with advice and guideline values for these parameters. The general advice was that detections of Strontium and Cobalt need not be reported and that a Guideline value for Thallium is provided by the USEPA (0.0005 mg/L). The guideline value for Vanadium is based on the Californian EPA’s value of 0.015mg/L.
Hughenden community subject to ‘unpleasant’ tap water since early December demands answers
Residents of a north-west Queensland town say they have been burdened by discoloured, foul-smelling water for more than a month, with many resorting to buying and filtering water each day.
Some have experienced brown drinking water, while others have reported strong chlorine.
The Flinders Shire Council has assured Hughenden residents that the supply had not been over-chlorinated and the water was “not harmful to health”.
It blamed increased chlorination, granular chlorine, broken pipes, and bugs for the discolouration and foul smell.
During a meeting in December, Queensland Health recommended that the Flinders Shire Council increase chlorine levels to reach Australian Drinking Standard Guidelines.
It was recommended to increase levels to the standard 0.2 milligrams per litre and reduce levels of algae in town water.
That target has still not been reached, but the town has been stuck with discoloured and smelly water ever since.
Water ‘not pleasant’, but ‘not harmful’: mayor
Flinders Shire CEO Daryl Buckingham told the ABC the chlorine level was yet to reach the recommended 0.2 milligram per litre.
He did not say what the chlorine level was currently sitting at.
Mayor Jane McNamara said council staff were working to flush the water in affected areas.
“Businesses that really rely on clean water they’re being made a priority because that’s affecting their business, and food outlets,” she said.
A Hughenden resident who wished to remain anonymous said locals were wary to complain.
“We live in a small community,” the resident said.
Cr McNamara cautioned residents against making complaints on social media as council staff could not respond.
Instead, residents needed to make an official complaint.
Mercury Detection– Pentland: Whilst preparing this report it was noticed that there had been a very small detection of Mercury (0.0013mg/L– [0.001mg/L to two significant figures]) in August 2015, this was reported to DEWS 30/11/16. All preceding and subsequent tests showed no detection at all (below threshold) and no explanation can be given for the result. The external tester has now reviewed their reporting of non -compliant results and a more thorough internal evaluation process has also been introduced.
Charters Towers Regional Shire Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015-16
Mercury: Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.001mg/L
Mercury, if it enters the ecosystem can transform into the more toxic methylmercury where it can bioaccumulate. Methylmercury is highly toxic to human embryos, fetuses, infants and children. Mercury has numerous sources including old gold mines, where mercury was used in gold recovery process. It has been estimated that 950 tonnes of
mercury was deposited into Victorian soil, rivers and streams during the various gold rushes.
https://ntn.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/mercury_brief20101.pdf
Chlorine Detection– Ravenswood: In July 2016 it was found that several instances of elevated Chlorine residuals detected in Ravenswood Treatment Plant during 2015 had not been reported due to the Operator (Carpentaria Gold Mine) not being aware of the reporting requirement. The levels were just over the reportable threshold of 5.0mg/L and routine test results showed the levels had dropped to normal within a couple of days. The operator is now aware of their obligations. Free chlorine levels exceeding the health guideline value of 5.0 mg/L were measured on 8 December 2014 from the chlorine sampling point for the Athelstane Range Reservoir B. In situ free chlorine levels within the reservoir were measured at 5.4 and 8.8 mg/L. The short-lived spikes in free chlorine residual recorded during the event were caused by a power outage as a result of a recent thunderstorm and lightning strike which led to dosing occurring due to a faulty inlet flow meter.
Charters Towers Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
E.coli Detection–Charters Towers Reservoir: E.coli was detected in a sample (and its duplicate) collected from the Charters Towers Steel Reservoir and immediately reported – Incident No. DWI-7-479-00009 (20/02/2016) refers. Corrective actions (flushing, retest) were as directed by DEWS; all subsequent testing showed no further detection. Reason was found to be that the
sample was taken from an incorrect sampling point without following correct flushing procedures. Staff have been retrained in correct sampling techniques.
2015/16: Charters Towers Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
2015/16 – Charters Towers Reservoir – Cadmium
Cadmium Detection–Charters Towers Reservoir: On May the 4th 2016 during a routine analysis, it was found by Townsville Laboratories that a sample taken at the Charters Towers Steel reservoir exceeded the ADWG health value of .002mg/L for Cadmium. The reported level was 0.0042 mg/L, the subsequent investigation found that an old galvanised test point was used
giving a false indication. Corrective actions (retest) were as directed by DEWS; all subsequent testing found no elevated Cadmium results (as reported in the investigation report). Gal sample point isolated.
2015/16: Charters Towers Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
ADWG Cadmium Guideline. 0.002mg/L
The primary route of exposure of cadmium is via contaminated water or food. Fertiliser can be a source of excessive cadmium as can rainwater tanks. It has been linked to cancer, lung disorders, kidney disease and autoimmune disease.
2016/17 – Charters Towers Service Area – Lead
2016/17: Charters Towers – Lead 0.012mg/L? (highest level)
2016/17: Charters Towers Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2016/17 – Charters Towers Service Area – Colour
2016/17: Charters Towers – Colour 1431 Pt-Co Units (highest level), av 66.91
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2016/17 – Charters Towers Service Area – Hardness
2015/16: Charters Towers Service Area – Hardness 360.7mg/kg CO3/L, av. 258.85mg/kg CO3/L
2016/17: Charters Towers Service Area – Hardness 571.1mg/kg CO3/L, av. 279.46mg/kg CO3/L
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2016/17 – Charters Towers Service Area – Turbidity
2016/17: Charters Towers Service Area – Turbidity 1030NTU (max), 59.86av.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Charters Towers (Qld) – Iron
2019/20: Charters Towers (Qld) – Iron 0.43mg/L (max), 0.035mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Cadmium detection – Greenvale Reservoir 07/06/17: Routine testing detected an elevated level of Cadmium in the reservoir water (0.0039ppm), DEWS were immediately advised – Incident No. DWI-7-479-00018. After discussion with DEWS and Department of Health that no action was required until further testing confirmed the presence of Cadmium. Subsequent testing showed no detectable traces of Cadmium.
Routine testing detected an elevated level of Cadmium in the reservoir sample (0.0042mg/L), DNRME was immediately notified – Incident No. DWI-7-479-00027. A ‘Boil Water’ alert was already in place due to high turbidity. There were no other detections of metals that supports leeching of the pipe-line or reservoir. A follow up sample was conducted on 5/2/2018 with a Cadmium result of <0.0001mg/L
ADWG Cadmium Guideline. 0.002mg/L
The primary route of exposure of cadmium is via contaminated water or food. Fertiliser can be a source of excessive cadmium as can rainwater tanks. It has been linked to cancer, lung disorders, kidney disease and autoimmune disease.
High Chlorine level – Greenvale Reservoir 18/10/16: A short term high chlorine level was detected at the Greenvale reservoir, this was immediately reported to DEWS – Incident No. DWI-7-479-00013. Test results taken at the same time from the reticulation showed values below 3ppm. Subsequent testing (internal & external) showed the level had returned to below 5ppm
Charters Towers Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
Chlorine Detection– Greenvale: In July 2016 it was found that several instances of elevated Chlorine residuals detected in Greenvale Reservoir during 2015 had not been reported due to a breakdown in t he reporting process. The levels were just over the reportable threshold of 5.0mg/L and routine test results showed the levels had dropped to normal within a couple of days, reporting processes have been addressed to minimise the risk of a repeat.
Charters Towers Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
Free chlorine levels exceeding the health guideline value of 5.0 mg/L were measured on 8 December 2014 from the chlorine sampling point for the Athelstane Range Reservoir B. In situ free chlorine levels within the reservoir were measured at 5.4 and 8.8 mg/L. The short-lived spikes in free chlorine residual recorded during the event were caused by a power outage as a result of a recent thunderstorm and lightning strike which led to dosing occurring due to a faulty inlet flow meter.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
High Turbidity event – Greenvale Reservoir 17/1/17: Due to a high rainfall event the turbidity in the Greenvale reservoir rose to 21.8NTU, DEWS were immediately notified – Incident No. DWI-7-479-00016. Whilst chlorine levels were fine and there was no indication of biological activity the Queensland Health Department recommended a boiled water alert be activated given the treatment process was incapable of addressing the turbidity. The boiled water alert was finally removed 28/4/17 once the turbidity dropped below 1NTU.
High Turbidity event – Greenvale Reservoir 22/5/17: Due to a high rainfall event the turbidity in the Greenvale reservoir rose to 8.4NTU, DEWS were immediately notified – Incident No. DWI-7-479-00017. Whilst chlorine levels were fine and there was no indication of biological activity the Queensland Health Department recommended a boiled water alert be activated given the treatment process was incapable of addressing the turbidity. The boiled water alert was finally removed 8/6/17 once the turbidity dropped below 1NTU.
Charters Towers Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
High turbidity event – Greenvale Reservoir 11/8/2017: Repairs were carried out on bore pumps at Greenvale on 9/8/17. The pumps were cleaned and flushed prior to starting however upon starting, there was a turbidity spike at the inlet to the reservoir, of 33NTU. DNRME was immediately notified – Incident No. DWI-7-479-00021. The residual chlorine remained above 2.4ppm. Queensland Health recommended a ‘Boil Water’ alert. Verification testing on 14/8/17 indicated the reservoir turbidity of 0.8NTU and the ‘Boil Water’ alert was lifted on 25/8/2018.
High Turbidity event – Greenvale Reservoir 8/1/2018: Due to a rainfall event the turbidity in the Greenvale reservoir rose to 40 NTU. DNRmE were immediately notified – Incident No. DWI-7-479-00025. The residual chlorine was above 2.0ppm. Queensland Health recommended a ‘Boil Water’ alert. The raw water supply in Greenvale is influenced by surface water at the source and turbidity is highly variable, rainfall events consistently contributed to elevated turbidity. Greenvale remained on a ‘Boil Water’ alert until 12/8/2018.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2010/12 – Tin Can Bay/Cooloova Cove (Queensland) – Chlorine
2010/12: Tin Can Bay/Cooloova Cove (Queensland) – Chlorine 5.6mg/L (highest level)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
2020/21 – Kilkivan (Queensland) – Lead
2020/21: Kilkivan (Queensland) – Lead 0.014mg/L (max), (av.)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Goomeri (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids
2017/18: Goomeri (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids 680mg/L
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Aramoor (Qld) 10 Nov 2020 to 7 April 2021. THM’s ranging from 270μg/L to 440μg/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
2010/12: Aramoor (Queensland) – Chlorate
2010/12: Aramoor (Queensland) 0.59mg/L
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
2020/21: Aramoor (Queensland) – Turbidity 8.8 NTU (max), 0.07 NTU av. at water treatment plant
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Aramoor – (Queensland) – Hardness
2020/21: Aramoor (Queensland) – Hardness 228mg/L (max), 171mg/L (av.) at Water Treatment Plant
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Aramoor (Queensland) – Manganese
2021/21: Aramoor (Qld) Manganese 0.687mg/L (max), 0.1mg/L (av.) at water treatment plant
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2014/19 – Hervey Bay (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
2014/15: Hervey Bay (Queensland) Trihalomethanes 360μg/L (max)
5 addresses breached ADWG’s for Trihalomethanes 2014/15. 8 breaches in total.
2018/19 – Hervey Bay (Queensland) Trihalomethanes 430μg/L (max), 206μg/L (av.)
“The cause of elevated trihalomethanes (THM) is due to high Natural Organic Matter (NOM) in the raw water supplies for Hervey Bay and Maryborough. While NOM is substantially removed through the treatment process, a sufficient amount remains to produce THM’s following chlorine addition for disinfection. THM exceedances occur at times where raw water NOM is high and when treatment processes removal efficiency is lower, for example during high demand conditions.”
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Hervey Bay (Queensland) – Iron
2015/16: Hervey Bay (Queensland) – Iron 0.315mg/L
2018/19: Hervey Bay (Queensland) – Iron 0.585mg/L (0.012av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Hervey Bay (Queensland) – Turbidity
2016/17: Hervey Bay (Queensland) – Turbidity 7.44 NTU (Max).
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2018/19 – Hervey Bay (Queensland) – Chlorine
2018/19: Hervey Bay (Queensland) – Chlorine 5mg/L (max), 1.02mg/L (av.)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2016/17 – Nanango (Queensland) – Chloride
2016/17:Nanango (Queensland) Chloride 463mg/L (Highest Level) [site NAN 5R]
2016/17:Nanango (Queensland) Chloride 490mg/L (Highest Level) [site NAN 6R]
2016/17:Nanango (Queensland) Chloride 460mg/L (Highest Level) [site NAN 7R]
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Nanango (Queensland) Total Dissolved Solids
2017/18: Nanango (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids 1130mg/L (max), 1106.3mg/L (av.) (Site NAN 7R)
2017/18: Nanango (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids 1110mg/L (max), 1055mg/L (av.) (Site NAN 6R)
2017/18: Nanango (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids 1130mg/L (max), 1074.3mg/L (av.) (Site NAN 5R)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
Incident Description: DWI-7-491-67 Proston Scheme
The 4th non-compliance was detected on 4/10/17 of THM 250 ug/L, located at Tingoora Reservoir.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/in
2017 – Proston (Queensland) – Chlorine
Incident Description: DWI-7-491-69 Proston Scheme
The 5th non-compliance was a detection of high chlorine at 6.2 mg/L located at the Proston Water Treatment Plant on 7/12/17.
Corrective and Preventative Actions:
Training, and procedures have been developed and implemented to prevent a reoccurrence.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
The 4th non-compliance was detected on 22/12/2016 of E.coli 1 mpn/100mL, located at Tingoora Reservoir
The 5th non-compliance was a detection of E.coli on 13/1/2016 of 2 mpn/100mL located at the Tingoora Reservoir.
South Burnett Regional Council Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
The 3rd non-compliance was detected on 14/9/2016 of 2 mpn/100mL of E.coli located at MURG 5 Hospital Reservoir.
South Burnett Regional Council Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: DWI-7-491-66 Murgon Scheme
The 2nd non-compliance was detection of THM sampled on 30/8/17 of 250 ug/L, located at the Murgon Hospital Reservoir.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
Murgon (Queensland) Total Dissolved Solids
2017/18: Murgon (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids 635mg/L (max), 505.9mg/L (av.) (Site NAN 7)
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates…” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
The 1st non-compliance was a detection of from a routine sample taken on 15/12/2016 at Muller park (BLACK 6). E.coli of >200 mpn/100mL was detected.
South Burnett Regional Council Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2016/17 Blackbutt (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
2016/17: Blackbutt (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes 289μg/L (max) [Site Black 6]
2016/17: Blackbutt (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes 324μg/L (max) [Site Ben 5]
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Rockhampton Regional Council to provide a full emergency water supply to Mount Morgan
9 April 2021
Rockhampton Regional Council has commenced using water tankers to provide a full emergency water supply to Mount Morgan following the drop in quality of the water left in the No. 7 Dam.
Around 20 truckloads of water a day will deliver drinking water from Gracemere to the Mount Morgan Water Treatment Plant, which will provide 160 litres of water per person per day.
This announcement comes after issues raised by residents about the taste and odour of the water coming from the dam.
Rockhampton Region Mayor Tony Williams has assured Mount Morgan community that the water is still very much safe to drink.
“We know that as the dam level has fallen – it’s now sitting at 8.6% – residents have experienced a change in the taste of the water coming from their taps as the dam water continues to slowly deteriorate,” Mr Williams said .
“We tried a number of things to tackle this, including bringing a few truckloads of water up a day and adding an extra step to our water treatment process.
“While there has been a small improvement it’s not enough, so we will now start bringing this emergency water supply up from Gracemere.”
In early March, the Council carried out successfully a trial to test the logistics of getting water tankers from Gracemere to Mount Morgan.
The Council is currently taking six truckloads of water a day to Mount Morgan, and Mayor Williams said this will be ramped up to 20 over the next week.
“The State Government had been covering the cost of trucking water to Stanthorpe until their recent rainfall, and we are in discussions with them to do the same for the people of Mount Morgan,” he said.
“This is a temporary emergency measure to ensure the residents have access to good quality drinking water, but Council is absolutely committed to finding a long term sustainable solution for Mount Morgan’s water security and I am looking forward to the public meeting next Tuesday.”
Water and Supporting a Better Environment Councillor Donna Kirkland said there would be no change to how people accessed their water.
“We knew this would be a possibility if there was no significant rainfall, so over a month ago we carried out trials to fine tune the arrangements and logistics of trucking the water up to ensure that we were ready to go,” Ms Kirkland said.
“Around 20 truckloads a day will be driven up via the Razorback, with the water placed into the reservoir at the Mount Morgan Water Treatment Plant.
“There’s no need for Gracemere residents to worry about their supply; we’ll be sending extra water that way if required.
“The water will then be disinfected again just to make sure its quality is still high after the journey, and will then be distributed using the same water distribution system that supplies water to the Mount Morgan community now. You will be able to turn on your taps as normal.
“We will be able to answer questions about this, as well as exploring options for the long term water security of Mount Morgan, at the public meeting next week.”
Divisional Councillor Cherie Rutherford said Council was listening to residents and taking action.
“Every call that’s come through, every email that’s been sent, and every conversation residents have had with us directly: they all play a really important role in our decision making,” Ms Rutherford said.
“There is still enough water left in the dam for a few months, and once treated it’s safe to drink, but we have heard what people have said about the change in the taste.
“We tried a range of things to address that taste, unfortunately from resident feedback it would seem these measures weren’t as effective as we’d hoped. Once this trucking gets going residents should see a real difference.
2015/2016 – Mt Morgan WTP (Queensland) – Giardia
As part of the annual verification monitoring program, samples were collected from the Mount Morgan WTP (potable water) and No. 7 Dam (raw water source) for Giardia analyses. The result obtained for the potable water sample was 1 cyst per 20L while the raw water sample had <1 cyst per 20L. The test results for the potable sample did not contain any other unusually high or non-compliant results for a range of physical-chemical parameters including turbidity.
At the day of sampling, the daily in-house water testing results measured a turbidity of 0.62 NTU, a free chlorine residual of 1.61 mg/L and a pH of 7.53. There were no known excursions to normal operations at the WTP during days prior to the time of sampling. The telemetry data were also within the normal operating range. There was no known immediate impact for the Giardia detection within and downstream of the WTP.
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
2014 June – Mt Morgan WTP (Queensland) – E.coli
A reticulation sample collected on 22 June 2014 from the Mt Morgan water supply scheme tested positive (1 MPN/100ml) for E. coli. At the time of the sampling the free chlorine residual
measured from the sampling point and supply reservoir were 0.48 mg/L and 1.63 mg/L, respectively. A second split (parallel) sample collected on the 22 June for general physico-chemical testing was also analysed for E. coli but tested negative for the bacteria. All follow-up samples taken from the sample site, supply reservoir, and other reticulation sampling points tested negative for E. coli.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2012/13 – Mount Morgan WTP (Queensland) Turbidity
2012/13 Mount Morgan WTP (Queensland)
High turbidity WTP Flow rate reduced; Adjusted coagulation dose rates
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Mount Morgan WTP (Queensland) – Aluminium
2017/18: Mount Morgan WTP Aluminium 0.59mg/L (max), 0.176mg/L (av.)
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
The E. coli detection recorded in the 2012-13 reporting period was attributed to the
green tree frogs gaining access to the inside of the service reservoir. A range of
preventative actions were already implemented to reduce this risk of recurrence in all
reservoirs review of rechlorination, vermin-proofing of reservoirs and regular
preventative maintenance checks.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2014/15 – Glemore Water Treatment Plant – Cyanobacteria bloom and cylindrospermopsin detected (Source water)
“Cylindrospermopsin is believed to have been the causative agent in the Palm Island “mystery disease” poisoning incident in Queensland in 1979, in which 148 people were hospitalised (Byth 1980). It was subsequently shown that water from Solomon Dam on Palm Island contained blooms of toxic C. raciborskii (Hawkins et al 1985). C. raciborskii has been found in many water supply reservoirs in northern, central and southern Queensland. Although C. raciborskii
and A. ovalisporum are both considered to be predominantly tropical/sub-tropical in terms of habitat, with most Australian blooms occurring in Queensland, C. raciborskii also occurs in the Murray-Darling River system (Baker and Humpage 1994). In recent years there has been increasing evidence of detection in the River Murray and C. raciborskii was detected in the major blooms that affected several hundred kilometres of the River Murray on the border between New South Wales and Victoria in 2009 and 2010 (NSW Office of Water 2009, MDBA 2010). C. raciborskii is not a scum-forming organism, but forms dense bands below the water surface in stratified lakes, while A. ovalisporum may form thick brown surface scums (Shaw et al 1999). Although no reports of human poisoning attributable to cylindrospermopsin have appeared since the Palm Island incident, recent cattle deaths in Queensland are attributed to
this toxin (Saker et al 1999)”. (Fact Sheet Cylindrospermopsin ADWG 2011).
2014/15 – Glenmore Water Treatment Plant – Trihalomethanes – Rockhampton
THM concentrations exceeding the health guideline value of 250 µg/L were measured in two (2) reticulation sample points and a supply reservoir on 19 March 2015. All follow-up samples from these sites had THM levels less than 250 µg/L however, slight exceedances were detected on 3 other reticulation sample sites on 31 March and 8 April. These elevated levels of THMs were due to chlorine predosing at the GWTP which was undertaken to treat high levels of manganese and associated organic carbon following the Tropical Cyclone Marcia event.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
2014/15 – Glenmore Water Treatment Plant – Manganese – Rockhampton
A Manganese concentration of 0.8 mg/L was measured in the drinking water from the Glenmore Water Treatment Plant (GWTP) on 11 March 2015. A follow-up sample collected from the GWTP on the same day also exceeded the health guideline value of 0.5 mg/L. Fifteen (15) of the more than 250 samples collected from Rockhampton water supply scheme from 12 to 31 March were also non-compliant for manganese. The exceedances for manganese was due to the very low dissolved oxygen levels (<2 mg/L), high organic carbon load, and greater amounts of dissolved, organically complexed manganese ions in the source water flushed out from Alligator Creek following the Tropical Cyclone Marcia event.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
2014/15 – Athelstane Range Reservoir (Rockhampton, Queensland) – Chlorine
Free chlorine levels exceeding the health guideline value of 5.0 mg/L were measured on 8 December 2014 from the chlorine sampling point for the Athelstane Range Reservoir B. In situ free chlorine levels within the reservoir were measured at 5.4 and 8.8 mg/L. The short-lived spikes in free chlorine residual recorded during the event were caused by a power outage as a result of a recent thunderstorm and lightning strike which led to dosing occurring due to a faulty inlet flow meter.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2016 February – Branyan Water Treatment Plant – E.coli
On the 18/02/2016 during routine micro analysis being carried out at the Branyan Water Treatment Plant (WTP) a detection of E.coli was found in the learwater reservoir located within the treatment plant. The result was 3 org/100mL @ 44.5oC. At the time of receiving the detection advice, the water treatment plant had gone into a planned maintenance shutdown with no water being discharged into the reticulation system. As per protocol, this detection was reported to the QWSR. Council was satisfied that this posed no threat to the community as the plant had been shutdown, plus, micro analysis had also been carried out as part of the same routine analysis program in the surrounding area and this did not reveal any other E.coli detections. As part of the planned maintenance shutdown, the reservoir was drained and cleaned. Upon refilling it was retested as per QH requirements. Two consecutive E.coli tests were performed with both returning a “No Detection” result. No adverse health effects were reported due to this incident.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015-16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Gregory River WSA: On the 16/03/2016 during Councils routine micro analysis, a detection of E.coli was found in the vicinity of the Forest View Aged Care Facility in Childers. The result was 55 org/100mL @ 44.5oC with the accompanying free available chlorine (FAC) residual being 0.54mg/L. Immediate notification went to QH, QWSR and the Aged Care Facility. The Facility was also provided with a do not drink/boil water notice as a precaution. Upon initial detection advice, Council immediately carried out mains flushing. Queensland Health require two consecutive E.coli samples with a “No Detection” result before boil water notices can be removed. Following the mains flush, Council carried out the required follow up sampling. These two consecutive samples returned a “No Detection” result. The facility was advised and the boil notice was removed. No adverse health effects were reported in relation to this incident. Council had comfort in the fact that the detection appeared to be contained to the tap near the facility as other sites around Childers were tested under the same routine analysis and no other E.coli detections were found. Reticulation network activity adjacent to the Forest View Aged Care Facility was identified as the potential cause of this incident. An Incident report and debrief was undertaken to identify and minimise reoccurrence.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015-16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
On 14 May 2015 during routine analysis, it was found that a sample taken in the Gooburrum WTP reservoir exceeded the ADWG health value of 50.0mg/L for Nitrate. The reported level was 51.32mg/L
Incident Resolved: Gooburrum WTP –Nitrate Exceedance.The remedial work as reported in the 2016/2017 DWQMP Annual Report was completed in February 2018. This work has returned the Nitrate level back under the ADWG Health value (50mg/L). Nitrate levels are now averaging around the mid-thirties.It may be noted that the maximum and average results on page 22 do not reflect this, however this is due to the higher Nitrate levels that were being experienced prior to the completion of the remedial work. Conversely, the minimum result does reflect where the Nitrate level is now sitting…
Nitrate: ADWG Guideline 50mg/L. Nitrate is the product of oxygenated nitrogen created from the breakdown of organic matter; lightning strikes; inorganic pesticides; or explosives. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines recommend that nitrate levels between 50-100mg/L are a health consideration for infants less than three months, although levels up to 100mg/L can be safely consumed by adults. Mainly a problem in Northern Territory and some communities in Western Australia. “Cue, Meekatharra, Mount Magnet, New Norcia, Sandstone, Wiluna and Yalgoo have been granted an exemption from compliance with the nitrate guideline by the Department of Health. The water supplied is harmless to adults and children over the age of 3 months of age. Carers of infants younger than three months should seek advice from the Community Health Nurse regarding the use of alternative water sources for the preparation of bottle feeds. The Water Corporation provides bottled water free of charge for this purpose.”
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2013/14
On 17 June 2015 during routine analysis, it was found that a sample taken in the Kalkie WSA exceeded the ADWG health value of 0.002mg/L for Cadmium. The reported level was 0.0023mg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2014/15
ADWG Cadmium Guideline. 0.002mg/L
The primary route of exposure of cadmium is via contaminated water or food. Fertiliser can be a source of excessive cadmium as can rainwater tanks. It has been linked to cancer, lung disorders, kidney disease and autoimmune disease.
Kalkie (Queensland) Trihalomethanes
Kalkie WSA: The raw water supply for this WSA originates from the Burnett River, which at times, can contain varying elevated levels of natural organics. A total of twenty (20) samples were taken for THM analysis over the year within the Kalkie WSA. Two (2) of these exceeded the ADWG health value of 250μg/L. The average THM value was around 178μg/L
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Kalkie (Queensland) Lead
On 17 June 2015 during routine analysis, it was found that a sample taken in the Kalkie WSA exceeded the ADWG Health value of 0.01mg/L for Lead. The reported level was 0.012mg/L.
2016/17: Kalkie (Queensland) Lead 0.01mg/L
1/9/20: Kalkie (Queensland) Lead 0.026mg/L (max), 0.0035mg/L (av)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
2013/14: Bundaberg Water Service Area – Lead 0.014mg/L (highest level), 0.002mg/L (av.)
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2013/14
2018/19: Bundaberg Water Service Area – Lead 0.017mg/L (highest level), 0.002mg/L (av)
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2018/19
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
On 4 March 2014 during routine analysis it was found that a sample taken in Woodgate exceeded the ADWG health value of 0.01mg/L for Lead. The reported level was 0.018mg/L
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2013/14
On 25 March 2015 during routine analysis, it was found that a sample taken in Woodgate exceeded the ADWG health value of 0.01mg/L for Lead. The reported level was 0.017mg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2014/15
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
On 4 March 2014 during routine analysis it was found that a sample taken in Coral Cove exceeded the ADWG health value of 0.01mg/L for Lead. The reported level was 0.015mg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2013/14
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Coral Cove (Queensland) – Nickel
On 4 March 2014 during routine analysis it was found that a sample taken in Coral Cove exceeded the ADWG health value of 0.02mg/L for Nickel. The reported level was 0.026mg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2013/14
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
On 4 March 2014 during routine analysis it was found that a sample taken in Elliott Heads exceeded the ADWG, health value of 250μg/L for THM. The reported level was 276μg/L. The Kalkie WTP had experienced elevated levels of algae which would have contributed to this exceedance
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2013/14
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
2013/19: Lake Monduran – Queensland – Trihalomethanes
Lake Monduran can contain varying elevated levels of natural organics. The current configuration of the Lake Monduran WTP struggles to deal with the elevated levels and therefore at times the THM levels in the treated water can exceed the ADWG, health value of 250μg/L. Three (3) of four (4) samples taken at Lake Monduran WSA throughout the year exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average exceedance was around 326μg/L
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2013/14
Lake Monduran WSA: In the 2014/15 water year four (4) samples were taken for THM analysis. One (1) of these samples exceeded the ADWG health value. The average THM value was around 233μg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2014/15
A total of Sixteen (16) samples were taken for THM analysis over the year within the Gregory River WSA. Nine (9) of these exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average exceedance was around 290μg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2015/16
A total of four (4) samples were taken for THM analysis throughout the year. Two (2) of these slightly exceeded the ADWG health value. Both samples returned a result of 255μg/L
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2016/17
A total of eighteen (18) tests were undertaken for THM analysis over the year within the Gregory River WSA. Eight (8) of these exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average of these exceedances was around 300ug/L
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2017/18
Lake Monduran (Fred Haigh Dam) can also contain elevated levels of natural organics. The existing configuration of the Lake Monduran WTP can have difficulty in treating elevated levels of these organics and therefore, at times, the THM levels in the treated water can exceed the ADWG Health limit of 250ug/L. A total of four (4) samples were taken for THM analysis throughout the year. Three (3) of these tests exceeded the ADWG Health limit. The average of these exceedances was 297ug/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2018/19
Lake Monduran (Fred Haigh Dam) can also contain elevated levels of natural organics. The existing configuration of the Lake Monduran WTP can have difficulty in treating elevated levels of these organics and therefore, at times, the THM levels in the treated water can exceed the ADWG Health limit of 250μg/L. A total of four (4) samples were taken for THM analysis throughout the year. Two (2) of these tests exceeded the ADWG Health limit. The average of these exceedances was 310μg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2019/20
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
The Burnett River can contain varying elevated levels of natural organics. The current configuration of the Wallaville WTP struggles to deal with the elevated levels and therefore at times the THM levels in the treated water can exceed the ADWG, health value of 250μg/L. Four (4) of eight (8) samples taken over various locations and at varying times within the Wallaville WSA exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average exceedance was around 289μg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2013/14
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Gregory River Water Treatment Area (Childers/Woodgate) Queensland
Throughout the year, the Gregory River can contain varying elevated levels of natural organics. The current configuration of the Gregory River WTP struggles to deal with the elevated levels and therefore at times the THM levels in the treated water can exceed the ADWG health value of 250ug/L. Eleven (11) of sixteen (16) samples taken over various locations and at varying times within the Gregory River WSA exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average exceedance was around 294ug/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2013/14
Gregory River WSA: … A total of sixteen (16) samples were taken for THM analysis over the year within the Gregory River WSA. Five (5) of these exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average exceedance was around 343μg/L
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2014/15
A total of Sixteen (16) samples were taken for THM analysis over the year within the Gregory River WSA. Nine (9) of these exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average exceedance was around 290g/L
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2015/16
Gregory River WSA: … A total of Sixteen (16) samples were taken for THM analysis over the year within the Gregory River WSA. Eight (8) of these exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average of these exceedances was around 290μg/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2016/17
A total of eighteen (18) tests were undertaken for THM analysis over the year within the Gregory River WSA. Eight (8) of these exceeded the ADWG, health value. The average of these exceedances was around 300ug/L
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2017/18
Throughout the year, the Gregory River can contain varying elevated levels of dissolved natural organics. The current configuration of the Gregory River WTP struggles to deal with these and therefore at times the THM levels in the treated water can exceed the ADWG Health limit of 250ug/L. A total of sixteen (16) tests were undertaken for THM analysis over the year within the Gregory River WSA. Ten (10) of these tests exceeded the ADWG Health limit. The average of these exceedances was 311ug/L.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2017/18
Throughout the year, the Gregory River can contain varying elevated levels of dissolved natural organics. The current configuration of the Gregory River WTP struggles to deal with these and therefore at times the THM levels in the treated water can exceed the ADWG Health limit of 250μg/L. A total of sixteen (16) tests were undertaken for THM analysis over the year within the Gregory River WSA. Ten (10) of these tests exceeded the ADWG Health limit. The average of these exceedances was 354μg/L.
Corrective and Preventative Actions
Council is acutely aware of this situation and in conjunction with QH and QWSR, Council diligently carries out quarterly THM analysis with results going to the QWSR. The filtered water is also analysed at a monthly frequency for Total Organic Carbon (TOC) as a surrogate for THM precursors. As indicated, Gregory River water can contain high levels of dissolved organics that are difficult to remove with the current treatment process. BRC has considered various treatment and transfer strategies and has determined that the preferred strategy is to continue sourcing water from the Gregory River at the weir and to build a new treatment plant at the exiting site. In view of the process and hydraulic limitations of the existing plant and the plant’s age, BRC has commenced construction of a new WTP adjacent to the existing plant with construction due for completion in October 2020. The plant will be online early 2021.
Bundaberg Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Annual Report 2019/20
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
A top neurologist has called on the New South Wales government to list motor neurone disease (MND) as a notifiable disease amid suspicions a cluster of diagnoses in the state could be linked to something in the environment.
Prof Dominic Rowe, a neurologist at Macquarie University, has treated 889 MND patients – many from the NSW irrigation town of Griffith – in the past decade.
Rowe is concerned the prevalence of cases in the region could be linked to something in the environment, with researchers investigating links to blue-green algae, pesticides and heavy metals.
But he says his team is limited in their research because MND is not listed as a notifiable disease – one that must be reported to authorities.
If MND were given notifiable disease status, researchers could access location data that would allow them to see where people with the disease live in relation to places like lakes and water bodies, Rowe said.
They have access to “observational” data from patients, but Rowe says this is “not comprehensive”.
“If we just close our eyes and continue holding people’s hands as they die, that’s not satisfactory at all,” he says.
MND is a progressive neurological disorder that leaves people unable to walk, speak, swallow and ultimately breathe.
In Australia, MND has increased in prevalence by around 250% over the past three decades, according to Rowe.
While 5-10% of cases are believed to be genetic, Rowe says he “strongly suspects” something in the environment is driving a rise in the remaining sporadic (non-genetic) cases.
The data from a notification listing would help researchers zero in on cases and scour the surrounding environment for clues about their cause, Rowe says.
He says if an environmental cause can be identified, prevention – and even a cure – may be possible, and that “we should move heaven and earth” to get there.
Not far from Griffith is a lake surrounded on two sides by picturesque farming land. It has become a focal point for researchers looking into high rates of MND in the region.
Michelle Vearing says her family visited Lake Wyangan “every other weekend” while growing up and the kids would spend hours swimming and water skiing in the water. The recreational area of Lake Wyangan is operated by the Griffith city council.
Vearing is a volunteer with the Griffith MND support group, which organises many of its activities through social media. Its Facebook page contain a mix of tributes to people who have died, requests for urine and blood donations for research trials, and fundraising sales of everything from hand-stitched quilts to a treasured rugby league jersey.
“Nearly everyone in town knows someone who has or has passed away from MND,” Vearing says.
Out of the 30 people in the area who have passed away from the disease over the past decade, many had strong connections to Lake Wyangan or other nearby bodies of water, Vearing says.
In recent years the lake has become prone to blooms of cyanobacteria, commonly known as blue-green algae, a natural feature in Australian waters and one experts say is thriving as the climate becomes hotter and drier.
So far the NSW government has rebuffed the proposal to list MND as a notifiable disease.
In June, the NSW health minister Brad Hazzard agreed to meet with representatives from the Macquarie University research team to discuss the proposal, but the meeting was postponed due to the state’s coronavirus outbreak.
In a statement, the NSW health department said MND did not meet criteria to be made notifiable, which included “the potential for outbreaks, a necessity for urgent public health response and preventability”.
We explore the link between NSW waterways and a toxin that might trigger MND.
Professor Dominic Rowe of Macquarie Neurology says, “From 1986 to 2016, there’s been a 250% increase in Motor Neurone Disease as a cause of death in Australia and that can only be environmental…”
Research overseas has linked the neurotoxin BMAA, a by-product of blue-green algae, to MND. This toxin was recently discovered in Lake Wyangan in NSW.
It’s also been found in a number of other drought-affected New South Wales waterways, including along the Darling River.
Professor Rowe says, “If we can understand what in the environment triggers Motor Neurone Disease, conceivably we could prevent [it] from even occurring.”
Tim Trembath, an MND sufferer, lives at Lake Cargelligo, which is 140-kilometers north of Griffith. He’s spent a lot of time at this lake, where there’s been an outbreak of blue-green algae.
Tim says, “Up until about 2010, the lake water was the water that was used for drinking and washing in the town.”
The disease has stripped Tim of his ability to ride his motorbike and he needs regular care. Two of his friends in the 1500-resident town have died from MND.
“Anyone who lives in this town has probably swum in the lake, and the lake has algal blooms in it nearly every summer.”
While it’s easy to assume there’s a link between these waterways and MND, Professor Rowe says, “It is highly unlikely that there’s going to be one specific environmental trigger, it’s likely to be a combination of factors.”
Toxin Linked to Motor Neuron Disease Found in Australian Algal Blooms.
Algal blooms in major Australian rivers are releasing a toxic chemical that may contribute to the development of motor neuron disease (MND).
My colleagues and I tested algae from waterways in New South Wales, and found that a neurotoxin called BMAA was present in 70% of samples, including those from crucial water sources such as the Darling and Murrumbidgee rivers.
This compound is well known overseas, and has been found in waterways in the United States, Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. But this is the first time it has been detected in Australia. Although its presence has been suspected, it was never specifically tested until now.
Two samples containing BMAA were collected from the Murrumbidgee River, which runs through the NSW Riverina, a hotspot for MND in Australia. Positive samples were also collected in Centennial Park and Botany wetlands in central Sydney, as well as Manly Dam on Sydney’s Northern Beaches.
In the past 30 years, Australian rivers have had the dubious honour of hosting some of the largest algal blooms in history. In 1991 a bloom stretched along more than 1,200km of the Darling River, prompting the New South Wales government to declare a state of emergency. The army was mobilised to provide aid to towns.
Since then, southeast Australia has had four large blooms, most recently in 2016. The future isn’t promising either. Rising water temperatures mean blooms are likely to increase in frequency and duration in the future.
Multiple state agencies monitor populations of types of bacteria in Australia, regularly testing water quality and issuing alerts when blooms are present. This testing is necessary because of the impressive number of toxins that cyanobacteria can produce, ranging from skin irritants to liver and neurological toxins. Most of these compounds are relatively fast-acting, meaning that their effects take hold rapidly after exposure.
The neurotoxic compound BMAA, however, is not currently part of regular testing, despite links between long-term exposure to algal blooms and the development of diseases such as MND. BMAA is known to be produced by a type of freshwater and marine bacteria, as well as some species of algae.
How BMAA affects our health
Research in America found that regular participation in water-based recreational activity resulted in a threefold increase in the risk of developing MND. Satellite mapping also revealed that lakes prone to algal blooms were often surrounded by clusters of MND patients.
Southwestern NSW has become a focus for MND researchers since 2014, due to the presence of a hotspot for MND cases around the Riverina. The town of Griffith has reported a prevalence of this disease that is nearly seven times higher than the national average of 8.7 cases per 100,000 people. Hotspots like these can help researchers identify environmental factors that contribute to diseases.
This is particularly important in MND, in which only 5-10% of patients have a family history. The other 90-95% of cases are sporadic, occurring without warning. It is possible that BMAA exposure, in association with genetic, or other environmental risk factors, contributes to the high incidence of MND in the Riverina.
BMAA also has a similar structure to the amino acids that make up the proteins in our body. We hypothesise that this contributes to its toxicity and ability to build up in animal tissue and in plants that are exposed to contaminated water.
Similar to mercury, BMAA can accumulate in the food chain, which means that people could be consuming relatively large amounts of it through their diet. A US animal study found that dietary exposure to BMAA resulted in the formation of plaques and protein tangles in the brain, which are hallmark features of neurodegeneration.
Research now needs to focus on tracking and monitoring algal blooms to detect the presence of BMAA, and determining how long it remains in the ecosystem after these blooms occur.
This can potentially help to reduce human exposure to BMAA. Although the factors that cause MND are many and varied, we hope this understanding could ultimately help to reduce the number of people who develop the disease.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
2009 July – 2011 November – Longreach (Queensland) – E.coli
Number of samples 213. Max 9, Average 0.14
No E.coli detected since January 2010. 7 samples above ADWG
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2009/11 – Longreach (Queensland) – Fluoride
2009/11: Longreach (Queensland) – The only quality parameter that exceeds the ADWG health limit is fluoride, which ranges from 5.5 to 6 mg/L (6 in the Snapshot Monitoring). This is precisely the feature that will be used for beneficial purposes by adding borewater at 10% to the treated river water to provide fluoride in the specified range of 0.6 to 0.8 mg/L (quarterly average).
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG.
Longreach (Queensland) – Turbidity
2009-11: Longreach (Queensland) – Turbidity 10.5 NTU (Maximum detection during year), 1.99NTU av.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2011 Dec: Longreach (Queensland) – Chlorate
13 Dec 11: 0.75mg/L
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Longreach (Queensland) – Trichloroacetic Acid
Breaches to ADWG listed only
2011 February 8: Longreach (Queensland) 104ug/L
2011 March 15: Longreach (Queensland) 109ug/L + 102ug/L
2012 February 29: Longreach (Queensland) 106ug/L
2012 April 3: Longreach (Queensland) 110ug/L
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
There are no epidemiological studies of TCA carcinogenicity in humans. Most of the human health data for chlorinated acetic acids concern components of complex mixtures of water disinfectant by-products. These complex mixtures of disinfectant by-products have been associated with increased potential for bladder, rectal, and colon cancer in humans [reviewed by Boorman et al. (1999); Mills et al. (1998)].” Ref: tmp/Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) CASRN 76-03-9 IRIS US EPA.htm
2009 April – 2009 December – Isisford (Queensland) – E.coli
Number of samples 123. Max 200, Average 2.3
No E.coli detected since December 2009
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Isisford (Queensland) – Turbidity
2009-11: Isisford (Queensland) – Turbidity 14 NTU (Maximum detection during year), 2.4NTU av.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
2011 Aug-Dec: Isisford (Queensland) – Chlorate
15 Aug 11: 0.33mg/L
13 Dec 11: 1.22mg/L
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
There was one positive E.coli reading in the two year period. Follow-up sampling proved negative
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2011 Aug-Dec: Ilfracombe (Queensland) – Chlorate
15 Aug 11: 0.97mg/L
13 Dec 11: 0.97mg/L
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
2015/16: Glenden (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 97.6% (max), av. 73.188%. 1 exceedence during year.
Based on aesthetic considerations, it is desirable that the dissolved oxygen concentration in drinking water be greater than 85% saturation.
No health-based guideline value has been set for dissolved oxygen.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Drinking water will generally contain an adequate concentration of dissolved oxygen; however, under some circumstances the oxygen concentration may be reduced. This may occur, for instance, where water has been drawn from deep storages, where there is considerable growth of microorganisms in a distribution system, or following prolonged periods of high water temperature.
Low oxygen concentrations or anoxic conditions enable nuisance anaerobic microorganisms to grow, producing by-products that affect the aesthetic quality of the water and increase corrosion of pipes and fittings.
There are a number of such nuisance microorganisms. Manganese-reducing bacteria produce black manganese deposits which can slough off pipes and soil laundry. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce hydrogen sulfide, giving drinking water a ‘rotten egg’ smell. Nitrate-reducing bacteria can produce nitrite. Iron-reducing bacteria can increase the concentration of ferrous ion in solution which will lead to the deposition of insoluble ferric salts when aeration is increased.
Localised pH changes associated with the growth of nuisance microorganisms can cause rapid corrosion in metal pipes.
Water from groundwater sources will generally have low oxygen concentrations and while this may cause no difficulties for most supplies, some supplies may need aeration to improve water quality (e.g. taste and odour). ADWG 2011
2015/16: St Lawrence (Queensland) – Selenium 1.32mg/L
GUIDELINE
“Based on health considerations, the concentration of selenium in drinking water should not
exceed 0.01 mg/L.
Selenium and selenium salts are widespread in the environment. Selenium is released from natural and human-made sources, with the main source being the burning of coal. Selenium is also a by-product of the processing of sulfide ores, chiefly in the copper refining industry.
The major use of selenium is in the manufacture of electronic components. It is used in several other industries, and selenium compounds are used in some insecticides, in hair shampoos as an anti-dandruff agent, and as a nutritional feed additive for poultry and livestock.
Selenium concentrations in source waters are generally very low and depend on local geochemistry, pH and the presence of iron salts. Concentrations in drinking water supplies overseas are generally below 0.01 mg/L but groundwater concentrations as high as 6 mg/L have been reported in the United States.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
St Lawrence (Queensland) – Aluminium
2016/17: St Lawrence (Queensland) Aluminium 0.59mg/L (Highest Level Only)
3 exceedences during year
Australian Guideline: Aluminium 0.2mg/L
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
St Lawrence (Queensland) – Dissolved Oxygen
2016/17: St Lawrence (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 102.4% (max), av. 90.06%. 1 exceedence during year.
Based on aesthetic considerations, it is desirable that the dissolved oxygen concentration in drinking water be greater than 85% saturation.
No health-based guideline value has been set for dissolved oxygen.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Drinking water will generally contain an adequate concentration of dissolved oxygen; however, under some circumstances the oxygen concentration may be reduced. This may occur, for instance, where water has been drawn from deep storages, where there is considerable growth of microorganisms in a distribution system, or following prolonged periods of high water temperature.
Low oxygen concentrations or anoxic conditions enable nuisance anaerobic microorganisms to grow, producing by-products that affect the aesthetic quality of the water and increase corrosion of pipes and fittings.
There are a number of such nuisance microorganisms. Manganese-reducing bacteria produce black manganese deposits which can slough off pipes and soil laundry. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce hydrogen sulfide, giving drinking water a ‘rotten egg’ smell. Nitrate-reducing bacteria can produce nitrite. Iron-reducing bacteria can increase the concentration of ferrous ion in solution which will lead to the deposition of insoluble ferric salts when aeration is increased.
Localised pH changes associated with the growth of nuisance microorganisms can cause rapid corrosion in metal pipes.
Water from groundwater sources will generally have low oxygen concentrations and while this may cause no difficulties for most supplies, some supplies may need aeration to improve water quality (e.g. taste and odour). ADWG 2011
St Lawrence (Queensland) – Hydrogen Sulfide
2016/17 – St Lawrence (Queensland) – 1mg/L 1 exceedence during year
Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of hydrogen sulfide in drinking water should not exceed 0.05 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for hydrogen sulfide, or sulfide, as the aesthetic guideline is considerably below the concentration that would cause health problems.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Hydrogen sulfide is formed in drinking water by the hydrolysis of soluble sulfides, or through the reduction of sulfate by the action of microorganisms. Both processes require anoxic conditions. In well-oxygenated water, sulfide will be chemically or biologically oxidised to sulfate or elemental sulfur, and concentrations are extremely low. Higher concentrations can occur in anoxic water drawn from deep storages.
In water, hydrogen sulfide will be in equilibrium with the sulfide and hydrosulfide ions. The ratio will depend on pH, temperature and salinity. At pH 7.4, about a third will be present in undissociated form, with the remainder present as hydrosulfide. Above pH 10, the sulfide ion will be the dominant form; below pH 5, undissociated hydrogen sulfide will predominate.
Hydrogen sulfide has an obnoxious ‘rotten egg’ gas odour, with a taste and odour threshold of 0.05 mg/L. High concentrations in air can have a deceptively sweet smell and cause ‘olfactory fatigue’ (a deadening of the sense of smell).
Hydrogen sulfide is used industrially in the production of sulfur, sulfuric acid, inorganic sulfides, thiophenes and other organic compounds. It occurs as a by-product in a number of processes including petrol refining, coke ovens, paper mills, iron smelters, food processing and tanneries. It is present in sewers and is a major component of sewage odour.
Data on the concentration of hydrogen sulfide in food are scarce, although a number of foods and drinks are known to contain sulfides.
St Lawrence (Queensland) – Manganese
2015/16: St Lawrence (Queensland) – Manganese 0.5mg/L (maximum)
3 ADWG exceedences.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Moranbah and Nebo residents, south-west of Mackay in north Queensland, are being assured their water is safe to drink, after the discovery of benzene in three coal seam gas wells last week.
A spokesman for the Isaac Regional Council says Moranbah is supplied from groundwater supplies from the Burdekin and Eungella dam, and not from underground supplies.
He says Nebo’s supply is from an underground aquifer.
Arrow Energy says trace levels of benzene have been found in the three wells outside Moranbah and is unlikely to pose a public health risk.
Nebo (Queensland) – Dissolved Oxygen
2016/17: Nebo (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 85.9% (max), av. 70.7%. 11 exceedences during year.
2015/16: Nebo (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 80.5% (max), av. 65.482%. 5 exceedences during year.
Based on aesthetic considerations, it is desirable that the dissolved oxygen concentration in drinking water be greater than 85% saturation.
No health-based guideline value has been set for dissolved oxygen.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Drinking water will generally contain an adequate concentration of dissolved oxygen; however, under some circumstances the oxygen concentration may be reduced. This may occur, for instance, where water has been drawn from deep storages, where there is considerable growth of microorganisms in a distribution system, or following prolonged periods of high water temperature.
Low oxygen concentrations or anoxic conditions enable nuisance anaerobic microorganisms to grow, producing by-products that affect the aesthetic quality of the water and increase corrosion of pipes and fittings.
There are a number of such nuisance microorganisms. Manganese-reducing bacteria produce black manganese deposits which can slough off pipes and soil laundry. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce hydrogen sulfide, giving drinking water a ‘rotten egg’ smell. Nitrate-reducing bacteria can produce nitrite. Iron-reducing bacteria can increase the concentration of ferrous ion in solution which will lead to the deposition of insoluble ferric salts when aeration is increased.
Localised pH changes associated with the growth of nuisance microorganisms can cause rapid corrosion in metal pipes.
Water from groundwater sources will generally have low oxygen concentrations and while this may cause no difficulties for most supplies, some supplies may need aeration to improve water quality (e.g. taste and odour). ADWG 2011
Nebo – (Queensland) – Hardness
2016/17: Nebo (Queensland) – Hardness 487.57mg/L (Highest Detection), (258.08mg/L av)
6 exceedences during year
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2016/17 – Nebo (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids
2016/17: Nebo – Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 880mg/L (high) 561mg/L av.
25 exceedences during year
2015/16: Nebo – Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 754mg/L (high) 506mg/L av.
13 exceedences during year
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2016/17: Middlemount (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 99% (max), av. 91.93%. 1 exceedence during year.
2015/16: Middlemount (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 96% (max), av. 88.967%. 2 exceedences during year.
Based on aesthetic considerations, it is desirable that the dissolved oxygen concentration in drinking water be greater than 85% saturation.
No health-based guideline value has been set for dissolved oxygen.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Drinking water will generally contain an adequate concentration of dissolved oxygen; however, under some circumstances the oxygen concentration may be reduced. This may occur, for instance, where water has been drawn from deep storages, where there is considerable growth of microorganisms in a distribution system, or following prolonged periods of high water temperature.
Low oxygen concentrations or anoxic conditions enable nuisance anaerobic microorganisms to grow, producing by-products that affect the aesthetic quality of the water and increase corrosion of pipes and fittings.
There are a number of such nuisance microorganisms. Manganese-reducing bacteria produce black manganese deposits which can slough off pipes and soil laundry. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce hydrogen sulfide, giving drinking water a ‘rotten egg’ smell. Nitrate-reducing bacteria can produce nitrite. Iron-reducing bacteria can increase the concentration of ferrous ion in solution which will lead to the deposition of insoluble ferric salts when aeration is increased.
Localised pH changes associated with the growth of nuisance microorganisms can cause rapid corrosion in metal pipes.
Water from groundwater sources will generally have low oxygen concentrations and while this may cause no difficulties for most supplies, some supplies may need aeration to improve water quality (e.g. taste and odour). ADWG 2011
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Dysart (Queensland) – Turbidity
2016/17: Dysart (Queensland) – Turbidity 92 NTU (Maximum detection during year), 7.54NTU av.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Clermont (Queensland) – Dissolved Oxygen
2016/17: Clermont (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 99% (max), av. 87%. 6 exceedences during year.
2015/16: Clermont (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 92% (max), av. 83.317%. 3 exceedences during year.
Based on aesthetic considerations, it is desirable that the dissolved oxygen concentration in drinking water be greater than 85% saturation.
No health-based guideline value has been set for dissolved oxygen.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Drinking water will generally contain an adequate concentration of dissolved oxygen; however, under some circumstances the oxygen concentration may be reduced. This may occur, for instance, where water has been drawn from deep storages, where there is considerable growth of microorganisms in a distribution system, or following prolonged periods of high water temperature.
Low oxygen concentrations or anoxic conditions enable nuisance anaerobic microorganisms to grow, producing by-products that affect the aesthetic quality of the water and increase corrosion of pipes and fittings.
There are a number of such nuisance microorganisms. Manganese-reducing bacteria produce black manganese deposits which can slough off pipes and soil laundry. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce hydrogen sulfide, giving drinking water a ‘rotten egg’ smell. Nitrate-reducing bacteria can produce nitrite. Iron-reducing bacteria can increase the concentration of ferrous ion in solution which will lead to the deposition of insoluble ferric salts when aeration is increased.
Localised pH changes associated with the growth of nuisance microorganisms can cause rapid corrosion in metal pipes.
Water from groundwater sources will generally have low oxygen concentrations and while this may cause no difficulties for most supplies, some supplies may need aeration to improve water quality (e.g. taste and odour). ADWG 2011
2016/17: Carmilla (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 100% (max), av. 83.49%. 9 exceedences during year.
2017/18: Carmilla (Queensland) Dissolved Oxygen 104.39% (max), av. 94.31 (av.) 2 exceedences during year.
Based on aesthetic considerations, it is desirable that the dissolved oxygen concentration in drinking water be greater than 85% saturation.
No health-based guideline value has been set for dissolved oxygen.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Drinking water will generally contain an adequate concentration of dissolved oxygen; however, under some circumstances the oxygen concentration may be reduced. This may occur, for instance, where water has been drawn from deep storages, where there is considerable growth of microorganisms in a distribution system, or following prolonged periods of high water temperature.
Low oxygen concentrations or anoxic conditions enable nuisance anaerobic microorganisms to grow, producing by-products that affect the aesthetic quality of the water and increase corrosion of pipes and fittings.
There are a number of such nuisance microorganisms. Manganese-reducing bacteria produce black manganese deposits which can slough off pipes and soil laundry. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce hydrogen sulfide, giving drinking water a ‘rotten egg’ smell. Nitrate-reducing bacteria can produce nitrite. Iron-reducing bacteria can increase the concentration of ferrous ion in solution which will lead to the deposition of insoluble ferric salts when aeration is increased.
Localised pH changes associated with the growth of nuisance microorganisms can cause rapid corrosion in metal pipes.
Water from groundwater sources will generally have low oxygen concentrations and while this may cause no difficulties for most supplies, some supplies may need aeration to improve water quality (e.g. taste and odour). ADWG 2011
2016 December – Currumbin Waters (Queensland) – E.coli
Incident Description: On 12 December 2016, during routine verification monitoring, there was a positive detection of E. coli (1 MPN /100mL) recorded at a sample tap in the Currumbin Waters WSD. The free chlorine residual was <0.05 mg/L.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: On 12 December 2016, during routine verification monitoring, there was a positive detection of E. coli (1MPN /100mL) recorded at a sample tap in the Reedy Creek
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: On 31 May 2017, during routine verification monitoring, there was a positive detection of E. coli (1 MPN/100mL) recorded at a sample tap in the Stapylton WSD. The free chlorine residual was 1.1 mg/L.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Southern Regional Pipeline (SRP) – Stapylton (Chlorate, 0.99 mg/L, 22/04/2015). Seqwater reviewed the delivery of this water to the remainder of the SRP including off-takes to the distribution system reservoirs and undertook further testing. The affected water was found to have been sufficiently diluted by blending with water supplied from the Gold Coast’s WTPs so that water supplied to the community was within the criteria in the Seqwater DWQMP.
SEQWater Annual Drinking Water Quality Plan 2014/15
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Arsenic: Australian Drinking Water Guideline = 0.01mg/L
Arsenic is bioaccumulative and symptoms may take 10-15 years to develop after expsoure at high levels. Drinking water can be contaminated with inorganic arsenic through wind blown dust, leaching or runoff from soil, rocks and sediment. Groundwater sources such as bores will usually have higher arsenic levels than surface water. In major Australian reticulated water supplies concentrations of arsenic range up to 0.015mg/L, with typical values less than
0.005mg/L. https://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/ehu/2676.pdf
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Tablelands Regional Council Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016-17
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
According to the ADWG, no health guideline has been adopted for Aluminium, but that the issue is still open to review. Aluminium can come from natural geological sources or from the use of aluminium salts as coagulants in water treatment plants. According to the ADWG “A well-operated water filtration plant (even using aluminium as a flocculant) can achieve aluminium concentrations in the finished water of less than 0.1 mg/L.
The most common form of aluminium in water treatment plants is Aluminium Sulfate (Alum). Alum can be supplied as a bulk liquid or in granular form. It is used at water treatment plants as a coagulant to remove turbidity, microorganisms, organic matter and inorganic chemicals. If water is particularly dirty an Alum dose of as high as 500mg/L could occur. There is also concern that other metals may also exist in refined alum.
While the ADWG mentions that there is considerable evidence that Aluminium is neurotoxic and can pass the gut barrier to accumulate in the blood, leading to a condition called encephalopathy (dialysis dementia) and that Aluminium has been associated with Parkinsonism dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the NHMRC, whilst also acknowledging studies which have linked Aluminium with Alzheimer disease, has not granted Aluminium a NOEL (No Observable Effect Level) due to insufficient and contradictory data. Without a NOEL, a health guideline cannot be established. The NHMRC has also stated that if new information comes to hand, a health guideline may be established in the future.
In communication with Aluminium expert Dr Chris Exley (Professor in Bioinorganic Chemistry
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire UK) in March 2013 regarding high levels of Aluminium detected in the South Western Victorian town of Hamilton
“It is my opinion that any value above 0.5 mg/L is totally unacceptable and a potential health risk. Where such values are maintained over days, weeks or even months, as indeed is indicated by the data you sent to me, these represent a significant health risk to all consumers. While consumers may not experience any short term health effects the result of longer term exposure to elevated levels of aluminium in potable waters may be a significant increase in the body burden of aluminium in these individuals. This artificially increased body burden will not return to ‘normal’ levels when the Al content of the potable water returns to normal but will act as a new platform level from which the Al body burden will continue to increase with age.
2015/16: Julia Creek (Queensland) – Fluoride 6.34mg/L (highest detection), 3.09mg/L average detection.
34 breaches during year
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG.
2015/16 – Julia Creek – Sodium
2015/16: Julia Creek (Queensland) – Sodium 288mg/L (highest detection) Sodium 135mg/L (average detection)
1 breach during year
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
McKinlay Shire Council advises all residents of McKinlay to boil tap water used for drinking following a positive low level reading of E Coli affecting the township.
This alert applies to all residents in the township of McKinlay from September 10 until further notice.
McKinlay Shire Council says it is working closely with Queensland Health to resolve the situation.
“McKinlay Shire Council is working at identifying and rectifying this issue as soon as possible and apologise for the inconvenience,” Council said.
“Council are currently undertaking chlorination, flushing and re-sampling of the system. This whole process may take approximately 2 weeks.
“The boil water alert will stay in effect until McKinlay Shire Council and Queensland Health are confident there is no longer a public health concern”.
Consuming unboiled drinking water could lead to illness, especially for vulnerable people (e.g. those who are very young, elderly or those with weak immune systems).
If you believe the water has made you sick, contact 13 HEALTH (13 43 25 84), your local doctor or local hospital and advise them of your concerns.
People should use cooled boiled water or bottled water for: drinking, brushing teeth, preparing and cooking foods, washing raw foods such as fruit and vegetables, preparing beverages and making ice, preparing baby formula, sponge-bathing infants.
Unboiled drinking water can be used for: showering and bathing other than infants (avoid getting water in the mouth), washing dishes by hand or in a dishwasher, washing clothes, flushing toilets.
People should bring drinking water to a rolling boil and then allow water to cool before using it or storing it in a clean, closed container for later use.
25/7/17: McKinlay Township – E.coli
• Boil Water Alert was sent out to the community while the incident remained open;
• Follow up sampling occurred to ensure three (3) clear samples were taken
• Daily flushing (approx. 4 hours) occurred due to low turnover of water
• The two (2) storage tanks were chlorinated; no chlorine residual reading was taken due to lack of testing equipment
20/11/17: McKinlay Township – E.coli
• Boil Water Alert was sent out to the community while the incident remained open;
• Follow up sampling occurred to ensure three (3) clear samples were taken
• Daily flushing (approx. 4 hours) occurred due to low turnover of water
• The two (2) storage tanks were chlorinated; no chlorine residual reading was taken due to lack of testing equipment
14/3/18: McKinlay Township – E.coli
• Boil Water Alert was sent out to the community while the incident remained open;
• Follow up sampling occurred to ensure three (3) clear samples were taken
• Daily flushing (approx. 4 hours) occurred due to low turnover of water
• The two (2) storage tanks were chlorinated
• Bird Proofing was undertaken on the storage tank to ensure that there is no bird intrusion
“E.coli
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
24/1/18 – McKinlay (Queensland) – Fluoride
24/1/18: • The township has readings around 1.45mg/L every month however some months see the level exceed the health guideline limit of 1.5mg/L
• McKinlay Township has an open incident with results to be reported every month
Fluoride
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG. Health Guideline: 1.5mg/L
2015/16 – McKinlay (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
2017/18 – McKinlay (Queensland) – Ammonia
Based on aesthetic considerations (corrosion of copper pipes and fittings), the concentration
of ammonia (measured as ammonia) in drinking water should not exceed 0.5 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is set for ammonia.
“…Most uncontaminated source waters have ammonia concentrations below 0.2 mg/L. High concentrations (greater than 10 mg/L) have been reported where water is contaminated with animal waste. Ammonia is unlikely to be detected in chlorinated supplies as it reacts quickly with free chlorine. Ammonia in water can result in the corrosion of copper pipes and fittings, causing copper stains on sanitary ware. It is also a food source for some microorganisms, and can support nuisance growths of bacteria and algae, often with a resultant increase in the nitrite concentration.” ADWG 2011
McKinlay (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
The McKinlay Township samples are just over the max aesthetic limit of 8.5
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
When pH is below 6.5 or above 11, the water may corrode plumbing fittings and pipes. This, however, will depend on other factors such as the material used, the concentration and type of ions in solution, the availability of oxygen, and the water temperature. Under some conditions, particularly in the presence of strong oxidising agents such as chlorine, water with a pH between 6.5 and 7 can be quite corrosive.
Chlorine disinfection efficiency is impaired above pH 8.0, although the optimum pH for monochloramine disinfectant formation is between 8.0 and 8.4. In chloraminated supplies chlorine can react with ammonia to form odorous nitrogen trichloride below pH 7.
Chlorination of water supplies can decrease the pH, while it can be significantly raised by lime leached from new concrete tanks or from pipes lined with asbestos cement or cement mortar. Values of pH above 9.5 can cause a bitter taste in drinking water, and can irritate skin if the water is used for ablutions.
2017/18 – McKinlay (Queensland) – Sodium
McKinlay around 220mg/L
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2015/16: Kynuna (Queensland) – Iron 4.7mg/L (Highest level only – Reticulation), average 1.66mg/L
10 breaches during the year
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Kynuna (Queensland) – Turbidity
2015/16: Kynuna (Queensland) – Turbidity 68 NTU (Maximum detection during year), average during year 23.4 NTU
10 breaches during the year
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
2015 November/2016 April – Julia Creek (Queensland) – E.coli
Incident Description: The first non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on the 25th November 2015 at the Airport Residence located Airport Road, Julia Creek. One E. coli organisms per 100 mL was detected. It was noted that the water that serviced the residence was stored in two poly tanks and then pumped into the house.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: The two poly tanks were flushed out and dosed with chlorine immediately after the positive result and continued to be regularly flushed and dosed as preventative action. Boil Water Alert was raised for the township immediately. The first follow up samples were taken on 30th November 2015 and returned a value of 2 org/100mL from the Airport Residence and <1org/100mL form the Airport Building. The second follow
up samples were taken on the 2ndDecember 2015 and both the Airport Residence and Airport Building had a detection of 1 org/100mL. Following these positives, the tanks were flushed out completely and dosed with chlorine. A third follow up sampling was completed on the 8th
December 2015 and both the Airport Residence and Airport Building detected <1 org/100mL. On this same date, a sample was taken at another residence running off the same bore but without poly tanks and returned a value of <1 org/100mL. Another sample was taken on the 15
th December 2015 and was found clear of E.coli.
Incident Description: The second non-compliance was a detection of E.coli from a routine same taken on the 27th April 2016 at the Council Residence located at Airport Road as part of the Julia Creek water supply scheme. 109 org / 100 mL were detected.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: Boil Water Alert was raised for the township immediately.
After an initial chlorine flush of the two poly tanks, the Council staff decommissioned both tanks. The Airport Building and Airport Residence are now sourced directly from the Scour Bore. After decommissioning the tanks, three follow up samples were taken and were shown to
be clear of E.coli. Monthly testing at the Airport will continue despite the removal of the tanks as a preventative action.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Based on health considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not
exceed 2 mg/L.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the concentration of copper in drinking water should
not exceed 1 mg/L.
Copper is widely distributed in rocks and soils as carbonate and sulfide minerals.
Copper is relatively resistant to corrosion and is used in domestic water supply pipes and fittings. It is also used in the electroplating and chemical industries, and in many household goods. Copper sulfate is used extensively to control the growth of algae in water storages.
Copper is present in uncontaminated surface waters at very low concentrations, usually less than 0.01 mg/L. The concentration can rise substantially when water with a low pH and hardness remains in stagnant contact with copper pipes and fittings. Under these conditions, the concentration of copper can reach 5 mg/L or higher. In one extreme case overseas, a concentration of 22 mg/L was reported.
Incident Description: The non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 27/09/2016 at 104 Elderslie Street. 1 cfu E. coli organisms per 100 mL was/were detected when testing was completed on the 28th September, with a disinfection residual of nil (no
disinfection used in Winton Shire Council water supply). Notification was given to Winton Shire Council on the 29th September.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: The reservoir was flushed, and shock dosed with chlorine. Further sampling of the reservoir was completed on the 4th October, testing on the 5th October with no trace of E Coli. All follow up samples were free of E. coli. Testing procedures were reviewed to detect whether the source of E.coli could have been from handling contamination. The same process was used at each of the 6 sites with no other recording of E Coli, handling was unlikely to be the cause. With only one site registering E Coli it is unlikely that it was within the reticulation system. The approach that was taken is to continue testing post
chlorine dosing to see if there were any further occurrences. The subsequent testing came back clear, no further action was taken other than to maintain water sampling and testing regime as per the DWQMP.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
2011/18 – Winton (Queensland) – Colour
2011/18: Winton (Queensland) – Colour 19 HU (max), 2.92HU (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2011/18: Winton (Queensland) Iron
2011/18: Winton (Queensland) Iron 0.56mg/L (max), 0.08mg/L (av.)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2016/17: Millstream South (Queensland) – Iron 1.01mg/L (Highest level only – Reticulation), average 0.6655mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Millstream South (Queensland) – Turbidity
2016/17: Millstream South (Queensland) – Turbidity 18 NTU (Maximum detection during year)
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2016/17: Millstream North (Queensland) – Iron 1.16mg/L (Highest level only – Reticulation), average 0.7555 av
2016/17: Millstream North & South (Queensland) – Iron 0.806mg/L (Highest level only – Reticulation)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Millstream North (Queensland) – Colour
2016/17: Millstream North (Queensland) – Colour 58 Pt/Co Units (max), 34 Pt/Co (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2016/17: Ravenshoe (Queensland) – Iron 0.906mg/L (Highest level only – Reticulation), average 0.56825
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Ravenshoe (Queensland) – Colour
2016/17: Ravenshoe (Queensland) – Colour 32 HU (max), 18.475 HU (mean)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
Australian Drinking Water Guideline Thiometon 4ug/L
Tablelands Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Report 2016/17
Tinaroo Park (Queensland) – Colour
2016/17: Tinaroo Park (Queensland) – Colour 23 HU (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2016/17: Millaa Millaa (Queensland) – Lead 0.025mg/L (maximum detection)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…
Millaa Millaa (Queensland) – Iron
2016/17: Millaa Millaa (Queensland) – Iron 2.13mg/L (Highest level only)
Tablelands Regional Council Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016-17
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Millaa Millaa (Queensland) – Colour
2016/17: Millaa Millaa Colour 20HU
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2016/17: Atherton (Queensland) – Colour 38 Pt co units (Highest Level Only)
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
DWI-7-498-00078 – 04 JANUARY 2017 – RAVENSHOE WSS – MOORE STREET NONCOMFORMANCE
On 04 January 2017, operational monitoring was undertaken within the Ravenshoe water supply scheme from Moore Street. The turbidity was increased due to the recent rainfall within the area resulting in a concentration of 4.79 NTU. An additional sample was collected from Moore St for monthly verification testing. On 05 January 2017, internal analysis of the samples did not detect any E coli. On 06 January 2017, TRC received a notification from the Cairns Water Laboratory indicating an E coli concentration of (estimated) 1 CFU/100ml within the Moore St sample.
Corrective and Preventative Action: On 16 January 2017, TRC had determined turbidity and chlorine levels had stabilized. TRC commenced internal processes in accordance with the DWQMP to close out the incident. This included undertaking three consecutive internal and two external NATA accredited E coli samples. On 20 January 2017, it was determined all five samples were clear for E coli.
On 27 January 2017, the boil water notice was lifted across all schemes via social media. TRC have undertaken reviews of internal notification processes and mitigation techniques (e.g. contingency plans) during high rainfall events. Due to the lack of filtration within these schemes, the event cannot be entirely prevented. However TRC continually work towards improving internal response towards these events and community engagement…
DWI-7-498-00079/80/81 – 06 JANUARY 2017 – MILLSTREAM, CASSOWARY AND BELLVIEW WSS EVENT
This event was triggered by the investigation undertaken on the 04 January 2017 and described above. On 06 January 2017, TRC received a notification from the Cairns Water Laboratory indicating an E coli concentration of (estimated) 1 CFU/100ml within the Moore St sample. Follow up sampling was undertaken and it was identified that the Ravenshoe, Cassowary, Bellview, and Millstream schemes were experiencing a sudden increase in turbidity and decrease in chlorine. After correspondence with DEWS representatives, TRC commenced the process of implementing boil water notices across the three schemes in addition to Ravenshoe as a precautionary measure.
Tablelands Regional Council Annual Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016-17
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: The first non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine in-house sample taken on 8 March 2017 at Yangan Park chlorine dosing shed. A follow up sample was taken on 9/3/2017 and sent to Queensland Health laboratory for testing. Additional samples were also taken from Mount Tabor Reservoirs, Yangan Reservoir, Yangan Park and Warwick Water Treatment Plant. The results from QHealth for Yangan Park were detection of three E. coli organisms per 100 mL, with a disinfection residual of 0.08mg/L; Mt Tabor Reservoir 1 were detection of two E. coli organisms per 100 mL, with a disinfection residual of 0.01mg/L
Corrective and Preventative Actions: Emptied and cleaned the reservoirs at Mount Tabor, monitored and maintained adequate chlorine residual throughout the system. Hatches in the reservoirs were replaced and screens installed at overflow pipes to prevent vermin entry. All follow up samples were free of E. coli.
Southern Downs Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016-17
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Last month, Miles residents had to boil drinking water after quality issues were discovered at the town water treatment plant.
Cr McVeigh said there had been a “run” of issues in Western Downs communities but stated the council was doing a good job detecting problems.
Reaction to the announcement on social media was less than positive, with many frustrated at another such notice.
Many on the council Facebook paged questioned how the water quality could be classified as undrinkable, less than a year after the completion of the multi-million dollar upgrade of the Chinchilla water treatment plant.
The water is expected to be given the all-clear to drink by Queensland Health in the next three days.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Miles (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
25/7/18 Miles (Qld) Trihalomethanes – 250 µg/L (max)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
On the 3rd of April 2017, a positive E. coli detection was recorded from a hydrant located at 4 Bunya Street, Dalby (result determined from an internal test). At the time of detection, replacement work was being carried out by a contractor in the area. They performed a water analysis from a hydrant which returned a result showing a presence of coliforms. Council were notified and commenced sampling from hydrants and taps in the immediate ar ea. The chlorine level at the sample location was 1.0mg/L at time of sampling.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
To minimise an undesirable scale build up on surfaces, silica (SiO2) within drinking waters should not exceed 80 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Silica present in water is usually referred to as amorphous silica (i.e. lacking any crystalline structure). When silica is dissolved within water it forms monosilicic acid:
SiO2 + 2H2O à Si(OH)4
When the concentrations of monosilicic acid increase, polymerisation of the silica occurs, forming polysilicic acids followed by formation of colloidal silica. Monosilicic acid and polysilicic acids are the forms of silica analysed when determining dissolved silica content.
The deposition of silica from solutions can occur via various mechanisms. The deposition of silica that can cause the most problems for the water industry is via silica’s ability to deposit on solid surfaces that have hydroxyl (OH) groups present. Surfaces that commonly have hydroxyl groups present are glass and metallic surfaces. For example, dissolved silica will react with the surfaces of glass and begin to form a white precipitate. The silica forms silicates on the surface, resulting in silica build-up. In cases where customer complaints occur due to scale build-up, water hardness and silica concentrations should be investigated to determine the cause.
Silica can be a problem in water treatment due to its ability to cause fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes (Sheikholeslami and Tan, 1999, Ning 2002, Sahachaiyunta and Sheikholeslami 2002). This occurs when the dissolved silica of the concentrate becomes super-saturated, causing silicates to form in the presence of metals, and these deposit on the membrane surface. The silicate then dehydrates, forming hard layers on the membrane that reduce the effectiveness of the process… 2011 ADWG
Dalby (Queensland) – Zinc
2016/17: Dalby (Queensland) – Zinc 2.9mg/L
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
CHINCHILLA residents will need to boil their drinking water for at least three days, after the council issued a warning yesterday afternoon.
A rise in E. Coli levels triggered the boil-water notice.
E. Coli is a bacterium which can make people sick however most strains are harmless.
The rise in levels was blamed on heavy rainfall in the area, which collected the bacteria in its run-off, Mayor Paul McVeigh said.
“We discovered yesterday elevated levels of E. Coli (and) what we have done is immediately raised the levels of chlorine in the water,” Cr McVeigh said.
This is the third boil-water notice the council has issued since November.
On November 4, Condamine residents were told to boil water. That notice was lifted 11 days later.
Last month, Miles residents had to boil drinking water after quality issues were discovered at the town water treatment plant.
Cr McVeigh said there had been a “run” of issues in Western Downs communities but stated the council was doing a good job detecting problems.
Reaction to the announcement on social media was less than positive, with many frustrated at another such notice.
Many on the council Facebook paged questioned how the water quality could be classified as undrinkable, less than a year after the completion of the multi-million dollar upgrade of the Chinchilla water treatment plant.
The water is expected to be given the all-clear to drink by Queensland Health in the next three days.
2017/18 – Chinchilla (Queensland) – E.coli
2017/18: Chinchilla (Queensland) 15/239 samples non-compliant for E.coli
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2015/16: Bell (Queensland) – Hardness 321mg/L (Highest Detection), (314.83av)
2016/17: Bell (Queensland) – Hardness 313mg/L (Highest Detection), (310av)
2017/18: Bell (Queensland) Hardness 4/24 non-compliant samples
GUIDELINE
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2015/16 – Bell (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids
2015/16: Bell – Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 1050mg/L (high) 1016.67av.
2016/17: Bell – Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 1040mg/L (high) 1018.33 av.
2017/18 Bell- Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 5/24 non-compliant samples
GUIDELINE
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
2015/16 – Bell – (Queensland) – Sodium
2015/16: Bell (Queensland) Sodium 272mg/L (high), 268mg/L (average)
2016/17: Bell (Queensland) Sodium 280mg/L (high), 272.5mg/L (average)
2017/18: Bell (Queensland) Sodium 5/24 non compliant samples.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Bell (Queensland) – Plasticiser
2017/18: N-Butyl-Benzenesulfonamide
4/6 Non compliant samples. Not reported to regulator. Not seen as a public health risk
Western Downs Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2017/18
N-Butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS), a plasticizer used commercially in the polymerization of polyamide compounds. It is neurotoxic and has been found to induce spastic myelopathy in rabbits.
On November 4, Condamine residents were told to boil water. That notice was lifted 11 days later.
Last month, Miles residents had to boil drinking water after quality issues were discovered at the town water treatment plant.
Cr McVeigh said there had been a “run” of issues in Western Downs communities but stated the council was doing a good job detecting problems.
Reaction to the announcement on social media was less than positive, with many frustrated at another such notice.
Many on the council Facebook paged questioned how the water quality could be classified as undrinkable, less than a year after the completion of the multi-million dollar upgrade of the Chinchilla water treatment plant.
The water is expected to be given the all-clear to drink by Queensland Health in the next three days.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
DWI-7-480-00085 Condamine 9/05/2018 Disinfection by Products – Dichloraecetic and Trichloroacetic Acids OPEN A routine disinfection by product sample was in exceedance 26/04/18.
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
There are no epidemiological studies of TCA carcinogenicity in humans. Most of the human health data for chlorinated acetic acids concern components of complex mixtures of water disinfectant by-products. These complex mixtures of disinfectant by-products have been associated with increased potential for bladder, rectal, and colon cancer in humans [reviewed by Boorman et al. (1999); Mills et al. (1998)].” Ref: tmp/Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) CASRN 76-03-9 IRIS US EPA.htm
Each of these plants normally had sufficient stocks of hypochlorite to last about 3 months. At irregular intervals each plant would receive a tanker delivery of about 500 litres. The hypochlorite tanks were generally protected from sunlight but were stored at ambient temperature. Chlorate detections tended to peak in the summer time and be less frequent in cooler months. Hypochlorite solution breaks down with time but at an increased decay rate in higher temperature.
To address this staff developed a procedure where a small quantity of hypochlorite was hauled at frequent intervals to the plants from larger facilities. Warra and Bell are serviced by Jandowae and Condamine from Miles. This helps to ensure that the hypochlorite is regularly refreshed and has a much lower average life. It also assists the larger facility to turn over its s tocks more regularly
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2017/18: Condamine (Queensland) – Turbidity. 1/22 Non compliant samples
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
2018 April – Condamine (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
DWI-7-480-00083 Condamine 26/04/2018 THM Reported on 08/05/18 to Pushpa. – Initial Notification sent 10/05/2018. A routine disinfection by product sample was in exceedance
26/04/18.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/in
On the 31st of May 2017 a positive detection of E.coli was recorded from an operational monitoring sample collected from the Warra water tower. The chlorine level at the sample
2017/18 Warra (Queensland) – E.coli. 1/119 non compliant samples.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Each of these plants normally had sufficient stocks of hypochlorite to last about 3 months. At irregular intervals each plant would receive a tanker delivery of about 500 litres. The hypochlorite tanks were generally protected from sunlight but were stored at ambient temperature. Chlorate detections tended to peak in the summer time and be less frequent in cooler months. Hypochlorite solution breaks down with time but at an increased decay rate in higher temperature.
To address this staff developed a procedure where a small quantity of hypochlorite was hauled at frequent intervals to the plants from larger facilities. Warra and Bell are serviced by Jandowae and Condamine from Miles. This helps to ensure that the hypochlorite is regularly refreshed and has a much lower average life. It also assists the larger facility to turn over its s tocks more regularly
DWI-7-480-00074 Warra 3/11/2017 Chlorate OPEN Chlorate was in exceedance at water tower. Follow up sample: 18/01/18 showed exceedance: 1.09mg/L; Follow up sample:
31/01/2018 showed exceedance: 1.31mg/L; Follow up sample: 16/05/2018 showed exceedance: 1.60mg/L
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2011
2015/16 – Warra (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids
2015/16: Warra – Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 630mg/L (high) 577.8mg/L av.
2016/17: Warra – Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 1050mg/L (high) 855.5mg/L av.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
2015/16 – Warra (Queensland) – Chloride
2015/16: Warra (Queensland) Chloride 280mg/L (Highest Level), 254mg/L av.
2016/17: Warra (Queensland) Chloride 550mg/L (Highest Level), 450mg/L av.
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Warra (Queensland) – Manganese
2016/17: Warra (Queensland) – Manganese 0.69mg/L
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Incident Description: On 22 of May 2016 a positive detection of E. coli was recorded on monitoring sample collected from the Wandoan “Doctor’s house”. The chlorine level at the sample location at time of sampling was 0.1mg/L.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
On 9th of November 2015, a positive detection of E. coli was recorded from an operational monitoring sample collected from Lion’s Park Jandowae. The chlorine level at the sample location at time of sampling was 0.2mg/L. The chlorine residual in the water tower was 0.3mg/l at the time.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Jandowae (Queensland)
2015/16: N-Butyl-Benzenesulfonamide 12ug/L (maximum), 2.93ug/L av.
Western Downs Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
N-Butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS), a plasticizer used commercially in the polymerization of polyamide compounds. It is neurotoxic and has been found to induce spastic myelopathy in rabbits.
Australian Guidelines Trichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L, Dichloroacetic Acid 0.100mg/L
“Chloroacetic acids are produced in drinking water as by-products of the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring humic and fulvic acids. Concentrations reported overseas range up to 0.16mg/L and are typically about half the chloroform concentration.The chloroacetic acids are used commercially as reagents or intermediates in the preparation of a wide variety of chemicals. Monochloroacetic acid can be used as a pre-emergent herbicide, dichloroacetic acid as an ingredient in some pharmaceutical products, and trichloroacetic acid as a herbicide, soil sterilant and antiseptic.” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Council…
“To minimise undesirable build‑up of scale in hot water systems, total hardness (as calcium
carbonate) in drinking water should not exceed 200 mg/L.
Hard water requires more soap than soft water to obtain a lather. It can also cause scale to form on hot water pipes and fittings. Hardness is caused primarily by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, although other cations such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.”
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Longreach Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Incident Description: Detection of E. coli in the reticulation system. Possible contamination of sample. In-house testing from the same sample point on the same day was clear and had free chlorine of 1.41. Water treatment plant operator also took sewerage samples on the same day and likely contaminated a sample bottle prior to reticulation sample being taken. Corrective and
Preventative Actions: Three additional samples were taken one from the same sampling point, one from before and one from after on the same line. All samples came back clear of E. coli. The line was flushed and staff were retrained on sampling.
Longreach Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management DWQMP – Annual Report
30 June 2014 – 30 June 2015
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Longreach Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
One (1) notification was for the detection of PFAS. Following information received from Queensland Health regarding PFAS, Council undertook PFAS testing on its groundwater supplies. PFAS was detected in two bores located in the Svensson Heights area at levels that exceeded, at the time, the draft Health guideline value of 0.07μg/L for Per-and poly-fluoroalkyl (PFAS) substances. Council reacted by immediately shutting down the associated bores and treatment infrastructure. All other groundwater supply areas were considered safe for PFAS
Bundaberg Council has switched off drinking water from a reservoir in the suburb of Svensson Heights after unsafe levels of the potentially toxic chemical PFAS were confirmed in the water.
Queensland Health said it was alerted by the council of a potential threat to the drinking water last week.
Bundaberg Mayor Jack Dempsey released a statement on Friday saying the contaminated bore was “immediately” removed from the area’s supply system and that properties were already receiving water from other sources.
But chief health officer Jeannette Young said council notified the public health unit on Thursday, April 5.
She said she became aware the following day and further tests this week confirmed high levels of PFAS in the suburb’s drinking water.
The council said it switched off the water on Wednesday this week and began draining the reservoir.
It said about 5,000 residents lived in Svensson Heights, a suburb near the city’s airport, a former RAAF station.
Defence Force bases have been closely linked with PFAS contamination across Australia, because of their use of firefighting foams.
Dr Young said the tests found PFAS levels were twice that of current national guidelines, but that Svensson Heights residents should not be alarmed.
“I really want to reassure residents that the risk of any consequence for the health of people in the community is low,” Dr Young said.
She said it was the first time such a large populated area had been exposed to PFAS.
“It’s possibly been in the water for many years,” she said.
“Council is investigating that at the moment, they’re not sure where the source of contamination is.”
The council said the Department of Environment and Science was investigating the source of the contamination.
Cr Dempsey described the water issue as “a shock” to the council.
“It is only in this bore area,” Cr Dempsey said of the contamination.
“Other tests have been conducted across our network and I can reassure residents the water that is in place certainly meets all of the state government guidelines.
“I can also reaffirm to the community there will be no interruption to the water supply, the mains have been flushed out, as well as the main stakeholders notified.”
Queensland Health said concerns about PFAS typically related to exposure over several decades.
Legacy issues with toxic chemicals from firefighting foam in waterways remains a national issue.
Chemicals once used extensively in numerous products
PFAS chemicals were components in firefighting foam, as well as household and industrial products.
They have not been used in Queensland since 2003.
The effects of PFAS (perfluorinated) chemicals on human health and the environment are being investigated by Australian and international authorities.
They include perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluoro-octanoic acid (PFOA), which are resistant to heat, water and oil.
PFOS was added to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2009, but Australia has not ratified that agreement.
Both PFOS and PFOA were previously used extensively in firefighting foams by both civilian and Defence Force firefighters around Australia.
HEALTH ALERT: School, aged care home in contamination area
https://m.thechronicle.com.au/critical-alert/
13th Apr 2018
UPDATE: MAYOR Jack Dempsey called an urgent media conference th is afternoon to helpsprea d the word about a contaminated water supply in Bundaberg.Cr Dempsey said there was no need to panic but, Svensson Height residents should be awarea chemical Per-and Poly-fluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) entered the water supply.Residents are being advised to run their household taps for a few minutes to help flush out any contaminates.
“Yesterday afternoon we had a confirmed analysis of what is called PFAS in our bore water
in the Sveneson Heights area” he said.”Due to the positive analysis we then obviously closed down that bore.”
In the last 24 hours the council had been in conta ct with other agencies, including environment, to find out how the chemical entered the water way.He said the supply area would no longer be in use.
“There will be no interruptions to water supply” Cr Dempsey said.
“The mains have been flushed out.”
Cr Dempsey said the chemical PFAS had a history right across all of Australia.With the State releasing information one month ago about the increasing numbers of contaminated sites identified across Australia.
The operation policy said the historic and current use of firefighting foams containing
fluorinated organic chemicals, was recognised as a significant threat to environmental values. “Today we do not want to pre-empt what investigation results will take place” Cr Dempsey
said. “We will let a complete and thorough investigation take place.” “These types of chemicals while predominated from fire fighting resources they are also fromother magnate chemicals as well. “We just want to confirm to the community once it was identified, action was taken
immediately”. Anyone with concerns should contact the State government immediately on 13 HEALTH.
Cr Dempsey said hearing the information was a shock to himself and the council. “We wanted to make sure we took action straight away. It is only in this bore area and other tests have already been conducted right across the network. The water in place meets all State government guide lines”.
The council is confident the flushing of the system had worked to remove the chemical.
Cr Dempsey was not able to address the health issues and advised any one with concerns to
go to the proper authorities. There will be a letter box drop early next week to advise residents in the area.
Queensland Chief Health Officer Jeannette Young said she wanted to reassure residents that
there was “no immediate health risk”. “The risk of any consequences for the health of people in the community is low” Dr Young said.
“There is no consistent evidence that PFAS causes any specific illnesses in humans”.
The chemicals come from the same group as the toxic firefighting foam that contaminated a
Brisbane Airport Qantas hanger in April 2017, leading to warnings from authorities not to
consume seafood caught in the area.
AFFECTED STREETS:
• Takalvan St between Enterprise St and Walker St (west boundary)
• Walker St between Taklavan St and Branyan St (north boundary)
• Branyan St between Walker St and Saltwater Creek
• Enterprise St between Takalvan St and Industrial St
• Industrial St
• Industrial Avenue
• Baxter St
• Welcome St
• Diggers St
• Osborn Rd
• Killer St
• Harris St
• Hull Court
• Nielsen St
• Dunkirk St
• Thorburn St
• Barnes St
• Theodore St
• Leeson St
• Joyce St
• Victory St
• Peace St
• Kedge St
• Dr Mays Rd
• Cattermull St
• Eriksen St
• Bates St
• Steffensen St
• Luther St
• Dexter St
• Bust St
• Coomber St
• Wainwright St
• McMurtrie St
• Mckewen St
• Roselt St
• Svensson St
• Williams Rd
• Alamein St
• Tarakan St
• Churchill St
• Montgomery St
• Tobruk St
• Page St
• Parry St
• Glasgow St
• Parsloe St
• Parsons
• Londy St
• Drinkall St
• Child St
• Spence St
• Richards St
• Pickett St
• Moran St
• Gaffel St
• Watkins St
• Ross St
• Wardrop Ct
• Orpin Cl
AFFECTED FACILITIES:
• Gracehaven Aged Care Service
• Norville State School
EXPERT WEIGHS IN ON PFAS:
University of Queensland expert Barry Noller said PFAS was a compound of concern but
unless there were very large quantities, it was not very toxic. He said it was a matter of accessing the causes of PFAS in an environment and the likelihood of exposure.
There are questions around PFAS and cancer in trials carried out on rats, but unless humans
are exposed to large amounts, it should not pose a major health risk.
According to the State Government, most people have PFAS in their blood because of
exposure to the chemical in day-to- day life.
Airfields and aerodromes are of particular concern because of its use.
Dr Noller said PFAS was a compound chemical that took a long time to break down in the
body.
He said if people were concerned they should see a doctor.
“The first thing to do is to see a medical doctor and get a medical opinion” he said.
“The second port of call is the Queensland Department of Health”
State accused of putting politics before people
LNP Leader Deb Frecklington said she was appalled to learn that residents of Bundaberg
weren’t informed about contamination to local water supplies for over a week.
“It’s disgusting that Annastacia Palaszczuk put politics before the safety of Queenslanders”
Ms Frecklington said.
“Her government has waited more than a week before telling Bundaberg locals that one of
their reservoirs has PFAS twice the national standards.”You’d think the Premier may have wanted to mention that when she was in Bundaberg lastweek for the Royal visit.
“Whether its hiding emails from union bosses, sitting on critical reports into the death of
children known to authorities or failing to mention threats to a town’s water supply – Labor
always puts themselves first and Queenslanders”.
EARLIER: The Svensson Heights area of Bundaberg has had the source of its water supply
changed following test results which showed a level of PFAS higher than the current national
guideline value.
Central Highlands Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Central Highlands Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Central Highlands Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Central Highlands Regional Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Yuleba (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2016/17 – Yuleba (Queensland) – pH 8.75
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
2016/17 – Jackson – Reticulation (Queensland) – Sodium
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Jackson (Queensland) – Chloride
2016/17: Jackson (Queensland) Chloride 250mg/L (Highest Level)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
2016/17 – Jackson (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2016/17 – Jackson (Queensland) – pH 8.66
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sulfate in drinking water
should not exceed 250 mg/L. Purgative effects may occur if the concentration exceeds 500 mg/L.
Sulfate occurs naturally in a number of minerals, and is used commercially in the manufacture of numerous products including chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides and insecticides. Sulfate, including sulfuric acid, is also used in mining, pulping, and the metal and plating industries. Barium sulfate is used as a lubricant in drilling rigs for groundwater supply.
In the water industry, aluminium sulfate (alum) is used as a flocculant in water treatment, and copper sulfate is used for the control of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in water storages.
The highest concentrations reported in drinking water overseas are from groundwater supplies where the presence of sulfate is due to natural leaching from rocks. Concentrations have been reported up to 2200 mg/L. In source waters, concentrations are typically less than 100 mg/L.
The taste threshold for sulfate is in the range 250–500 mg/L.” ADWG 2011
Maranoa Regional Council advises all residents in Roma to boil their tap water used for drinking, following the detection of E.coli affecting the Roma water supply.
This alert applies today (27 September 2017) to Roma residents located on the western side of town. A map of the affected area is available here.
Council is working closely with Queensland Health to resolve the situation.
Council is currently flushing the mains and increasing the chlorine dosing in the affected area. This may take several days, before the alert can be lifted.
The boil water alert will stay in effect until Council and Queensland Health are confident there is no longer a public health concern. Regular updates will be provided to those affected.
Consuming unboiled drinking water could lead to illness, especially for vulnerable people (e.g. those who are very young, elderly or immune compromised). If you are concerned about your health contact 13 HEALTH (13 43 25 84), your local doctor or local hospital and advise them of your concerns.
People should use cooled boiled water or bottled water for:
drinking
brushing teeth
washing and preparing food or beverages
preparing baby formula
making ice
bathing infants.
Unboiled drinking water can be used for:
showering and bathing other than infants (but minimise water in the mouth)
washing dishes by hand or in a dishwasher, provided dishes are air-dried
washing clothes
flushing toilets.
People should bring drinking water to a boil and then allow water to cool before using it or storing it in a clean, closed container for later use.
Kettles with automatic cut-off switches are suitable for producing boiled water. Variable temperature kettles should be set to boil.
Residents are urged to share this alert with neighbours and friends.
For more information, please click here or call Council on 1300 007 662.
Roma (Queensland) – Iron
2015/16: Roma (Queensland) – Iron 0.44mg/L (Bore 3)
2015/16: Roma (Queensland) – Iron 0.3mg/L (Bore 9)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Roma – Total Dissolved Solids
2016/17: Roma Bore 3 Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 1430mg/L
2016/17: Roma Bore 9 Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 1100mg/L
2016/17: Roma Bore 11 Queensland Total Dissolved Solids 600mg/L
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
2016/17 – Roma – Reticulation (Queensland) – Sodium
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Roma (Queensland) – Chloride
2016/17: Roma Bore 3 (Queensland) Chloride 630mg/L (Highest Level)
2016/17: Roma Bore 9 (Queensland) Chloride 280mg/L (Highest Level)
“Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination from effluent disposal. Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium chlorite and hypochlorite. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilisers.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range 200–300 mg/L. The chloride content of water can affect corrosion of pipes and fittings. It can also affect the solubility of metal ions.
In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is salt water intrusion.
Based on aesthetic considerations, the chloride concentration in drinking water should not exceed 250 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride.” 2011 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
2016/17 – Roma (Queensland) – pH (alkaline)
2016/17 – Roma Bore 9 (Queensland) – pH 8.56
2016/17 – Roma Bore 11 (Queensland) – pH 8.84
2016/17 – Roma Bore 13 (Queensland) – pH 8.91
2016/17 – Roma Bore 14 (Queensland) – pH 8.87
2016/17 – Roma Bore 15 (Queensland) – pH 8.88
2016/17 – Roma Bore 16 (Queensland) – pH 8.89
2016/17 – Roma Bore 18 (Queensland) – pH 8.91
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
“Continued monitoring of Quilpie’s water supply have revealed naturally occurring Fluoride in
concentrations that exceed of ADWG, with an average value of 1.75mg/l. Ongoing exposure to
high fluoride levels in drinking water have the potential to cause adverse health impacts. The
effects of fluoride concentrations found in Quilpie’s Drinking water supply include dental fluorosis which has the potential to stain developing teeth in infants. A more serious impact on health caused by high Fluoride levels includes skeletal fluorosis which only occurs in very high levels of fluoride in drinking water, above those levels experienced in Quilpie. Ongoing monitoring of Fluoride in Quilpie’s drinking water supply is one of the highest priorities relating to water quality, close monitoring of these levels will allow the detection of increased health risk in the future….”
14/9/17: Quilpie (Queensland) Fluoride No action taken as fluoride in Quilpie water is naturally occurring. This is an ongoing incident, ID DWI-7-108-00003 (exact level not specified)
14/12/17: Quilpie (Queensland) Fluoride No action taken as fluoride in Quilpie water is naturally occurring. This is an ongoing incident, ID DWI-7-108-00003 (exact level not specified)
14/6/18: Quilpie (Queensland) Fluoride No action taken as fluoride in Quilpie water is naturally occurring. This is an ongoing incident, ID DWI-7-108-00003 (exact level not specified)
Based on health considerations, the concentration of fluoride in drinking water should not exceed 1.5 mg/L.
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“The concentrations of sodium in Quilpie’s Drinking water supply are consistently above ADWG
aesthetic thresholds, the presence of sodium in water supplies is common in ground water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. The concentrations of sodium in Quilpie’s drinking water supply do not pose a great risk to human health however may be of concern to people suffering from severe hypertension. The concentrations present in the water supply may have an effect on the taste of the water where ADWG advise that taste becomes appreciable at 180mg/l.”
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Positive results have been detected in past samples. Frequency can be reduced once Legionella is no longer detected. (Bulloo Shire Drinking Water Quality Plan)
The family Legionellaceae contains a single genus, Legionella, with 26 currently reported species, of which L. pneumophila serogroup 1 is most frequently associated with human disease. Other serogroups of L. pneumophila and occasionally other Legionellae have also been reported to cause disease.
Legionella organisms are widespread in natural sources of freshwater and may also be found in soils. They occur commonly in man-made water systems, particularly in hot water and cooling water systems.
Legionella spp appear to infect humans by inhalation, and their presence in drinking water per se seems irrelevant until they are amplified by growing in specific sites under specific conditions (usually thermal enrichment), from which infective aerosols, and droplet nuclei, may be created.
Conditions in cooling towers, spas, warm water systems in buildings, hot water systems operated below 60°C, or ‘dead legs’ of hot water systems operated at higher temperatures, may favour the growth of Legionella organisms.
Spraying water in cooling towers or water agitated in spas may then produce
aerosols; water from hot water systems can also form aerosols in showers, through nozzle heads, or by splashing in sinks, baths etc.
Legionella organisms can be ingested by the trophozoites of certain amoebae (Acanthamoeba,
Hartmanella, Valkampfi a and Naegleria) and then grow intracellularly and become incorporated in their cysts. This may explain the difficulty in eradicating Legionella organisms from water systems, and it could be a factor in the aetiology of Pontiac fever.
AUSTRALIAN SIGNIFICANCE
Legionella spp have been found in cooling tower waters in many parts of Australia. However, very few Legionella organisms have been isolated from drinking waters. No published reports are available on the presence of L. pneumophila in drinking waters.
2016/19 – Thargomindah – Fluoride
The Thargomindah bore water has long had levels of naturally occurring fluoride in the range
of 1.6 to 1.9 mg/L. This range of values is slightly above the ADWG value. Based on the above
information, the levels of fluoride in the Thargomindah water supply are considered to be
Based on health considerations, the concentration of fluoride in drinking water should not exceed 1.5 mg/L.
“Fluoride occurs naturally in seawater (1.4 mg/L), soil (up to 300 parts per million) and air (from volcanic gases and industrial pollution). Naturally occurring fluoride concentrations in drinking water depend on the type of soil and rock through which the water drains. Generally, concentrations in surface water are relatively low (<0.1–0.5 mg/L), while water from deeper wells may have quite high concentrations (1–10 mg/L) if the rock formations are fluoride-rich.” 2011 ADWG.
2016/19 – Thargomindah – Sodium
The sodium content of the Thargomindah water supply is consistent within the range of 223
– 265 mg/L with an average value of about 240 mg/L.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
2016/17 – Thargomindah – Temperature
Although there is a general acceptance of the quality of the supplied water within the township of Thargomindah there is always a concern on the temperature supplied to the community during the summer months relating to the high temperature the water is being supplied to the residents during this period of time (in excess of 50oC)
“No guideline is set due to the impracticality of controlling water temperature.
Drinking water temperatures above 20°C may result in an increase in the number of
complaints.
Temperature is primarily an aesthetic criterion for drinking water. Generally, cool water is more palatable than warm or cold water. In general, consumers will react to a change in water temperature. Complaints are most frequent when the temperature suddenly increases.
The turbidity and colour of filtered water may be indirectly affected by temperature, as low water temperatures tend to decrease the efficiency of water treatment processes by, for instance, affecting floc formation rates and sedimentation efficiency.
Chemical reaction rates increase with temperature, and this can lead to greater corrosion of pipes and fittings in closed systems. Scale formation in hard waters will also be greater at higher temperatures…
Water temperatures in major Australian reticulated supplies range from 10°C to 30°C. In some long, above-ground pipelines, water temperatures up to 45°C may be experienced…
The effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant is influenced by the temperature of the water being dosed. Generally higher temperatures result in more effective disinfection at a particular chlorine dose, but this may be counterbalanced by a more rapid loss of chlorine to the atmosphere (AWWA 1990).
2016/17 – Thargomindah – Total Dissolved Solids
TDS concentration at Thargomindah are around 600 to 70 mg/L. According to the ADWG,
based on taste, water with TDS content of less than 500 mg/L is regarded as good quality
water, although water with TDS content of up to 1,000 mg/L is acceptable to many
communities. No health effects have been associated specifically with high TDS
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
2014/15: Cunnamulla (Qld) : There was one water sample fail for E-Coli in Cunnamulla in Feb 2015. Extra test were conducted as required by the standard and the result came back clear. At no time was the annual value for E.Coli below the minimum requirements…
This financial year there was only 1 instance where the Regulator was notified under sections 102 or 102A of the Act. Notifications pertained to the detection of E. Coli in the Cunnamulla Schemes. E. Coli is and organism that may not directly represent a hazard to human health, but indicates the presence of recent faecal contamination. The regulator has advised that the DWSP is to notify them of each sample where E. Coli is detected. Resampling confirmed to controls
taken by council has corrected the procedure in sampling…
A Water sample was taken at the Shire Hall Tap in the Cunnamulla Scheme on the 3rd Feb 2015
failed the test for E Coli. There was one organism per 100 mL. Due to windy conditions and bird excrement the sterilization process was not sufficient. Procedures were tighten in regards to fully protecting a site during windy periods and a more though cleaning of the chosen sample tap. Retesting of the site confirmed there was no E. coli in the actual scheme.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Based on the need to reduce corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings, the pH of
drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and
a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated, provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in
microbiological quality.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
One of the major objectives in controlling pH is to minimise corrosion and encrustation in pipes and fittings. Corrosion can be reduced by the formation of a protective layer of calcium carbonate on the inside of the pipe or fitting, and the formation of this layer is affected by pH, temperature, the availability of calcium (hardness) and carbon dioxide. If the water is too alkaline (above pH 8.5), the rapid deposition and build-up of calcium carbonate that can result may eventually block the pipe.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
Thallon (Queensland) – Iron
2015/16: Thallon (Queensland) – Iron 0.9mg/L (Highest level only)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
“Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of sodium in drinking water
should not exceed 180 mg/L….The sodium ion is widespread in water due to the high solubility of sodium salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can make an important contribution either by fallout onto land surfaces where it can drain to drinking water sources, or from washout by rain. Apart from saline intrusion and natural contamination, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and
sewage effluent can contribute to the sodium content of drinking water.” ADWG 2011
St George – Queensland – Total Dissolved Solids
2015/16: St. George (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids 557mg/L (Maximum Level) 553.33 (average)
2016/17: St. George (Queensland) – Total Dissolved Solids 558mg/L (Maximum Level) 552.75 (average)
“No specific health guideline value is provided for total dissolved solids (TDS), as there are no
health effects directly attributable to TDS. However for good palatability total dissolved solids
in drinking water should not exceed 600 mg/L.
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
A vomiting and diarrhoea bug is spreading in Toowoomba and Queensland Health is urging residents to ensure they have good hygiene.
There have been almost 20 cases of cryptosporidiosis this month while there were only two last year.
The director of Darling Downs Health, Dr Neil Parker, says the illness can be spread through swimming pools, changing nappies and eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water.
“The last couple of years we’ve had very little at this time of year or any time of year, but back in 2002 we saw a similar rise,” he said.
“Most of the gastro-intestinal illnesses show an increase during summer and it’s simply that during the warmer months the bugs multiply more quickly.”
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Toowoomba City (Queensland) – Manganese
2016/17: Toowoomba City – Source Water (Queensland) – Manganese 5.015mg/L
2016/17: Toowoomba City – Water Treatment Plant (Queensland) – Manganese 0.734mg/L
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Cryptosporidium
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Army Aviation Centre Oakey and RAAF Base Williamtown revisited
2.19 Oakey has been supplied with potable water from the Mt Kynoch Water Treatment Plant since the commissioning of the Toowoomba Oakey Pipeline (TOP) on 15 December 1997. Previously, water was supplied exclusively from bores that were put down most likely during the Second World War. Consequently, the water quality in Oakey was ‘…fairly poor. Any hot water systems or any filters were blocked up pretty quickly’:[22]
The bore water associated with the local ball field out here had a reasonable mineral load in it—a mineral load based on conductivity and total dissolved solids—and it was also quite hard. The hardness values of that water were around 500 milligrams per litre and, based on the National Health and Medical research Council guidelines, good quality water should be between 60 and 200 milligrams per litre.[23]
2.20 For a decade from 1999, the region experienced a significant drought. The Toowoomba Regional Council submission described measures that were taken in an effort to drought-proof the community:
In 2006 the State Government provided funding to construct a Reverse Osmosis (RO) Water Treatment Plant as part of the overall drought response measures to supplement dwindling reserves in the Toowoomba supply storages.[24]
2.21 The Oakey bore field was brought back on line for approximately four years from October 2008 to supply feed water to the newly-commissioned Oakey Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment Plant (Oakey RO WTP) before the plant was taken offline for maintenance in November 2012. That meant that water coming out of the bores through the RO process was blended with more water from the bores and further blended with water from Toowoomba to supplement the supply for Oakey:
Extraction from the bore field continued until the RO WTP and supply bores were taken out of service on 30 November 2012. Since the cessation of the supplementary supply from the RO WTP, water supply in Oakey has been exclusively sourced from the Mt Kynoch WTP via the Oakey Toowoomba pipeline.[25]
2.22 It was likely that the RO process would have removed any chemical of concern, including PFOS or PFOA, at that time as it is able to remove large molecules. Council was of the view that while the water going into the system contained contaminants, it ‘…would have been in-line with health guidelines that were around, if there were any at the time’.[26] At the 9 May public hearing, Council elaborated:
It is about an 80-20 mix. It is 80 per cent water going through the RO plant, which is pure water, mixed with about 20 per cent of raw bore water to make a shandy, which then went to the large reservoirs on the hill here. Then it was blended with a further 30 per cent—a 30-70 blend—of Toowoomba water. The blend, we believe, would have been well below the limits that were around at the time…It was 0.3 micrograms per litre, I think.[27]
2.23 Council advised that because AACO is located on the same aquifer from which Oakey RO WTP draws feed water ‘…the presence of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the aquifer originating from prolonged use of firefighting chemicals at the Centre…meant that the Oakey RO WTP could not be returned to service due to the risk of toxicity that PFAS presents’.[28] Any maintenance activities have been put on hold due to the groundwater contamination.
2.24 Council further assured the committee that the residents of Oakey currently have access to clear, clean water: ‘You can rest assured that is the case for everybody who is connected to the reticulated supply…provided by the Toowoomba Regional Council [which] is up to the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines’.[29]
Impact of contamination on the Oakey community
2.25 Evidence presented to the committee demonstrates that while contamination has caused significantly elevated levels of PFOS/PFOA in the blood of many Oakey residents, the health implications flowing from these elevated levels are far from clear. Shine Lawyers argued that while scientific opinion around the world varies as to the water quality guidance value for PFOS in freshwater, ‘…what is obvious is that levels at Oakey are many multiples of what is considered a “safe” level of exposure from drinking water’. This includes elevated levels of PFOA in the town water supply bore 8 located at the Oakey showgrounds, and PFOS concentrations above the adopted drinking water limit at 42 of the 112 bores tested, one of 13 creek samples tested and 39 of 43 drainage line locations tested.[30]
2.26 Dr Donaldson advised the committee that he had investigated the distribution of several perfluorinated compounds in the plume area with the cooperation of neighbours and other residents and with the assistance of colleagues:
To my chagrin and surprise my results exposed a much greater level of exposure than expected. As a matter of professional courtesy I sent some of my results to the Department of Defence. The results were subsequently confirmed.[31]
2.27 Dr Donaldson expressed the view that the media has presented a ‘…damning portrayal of Oakey by linking the whole district to health threatening contamination’,[32] as a consequence of ill-advised public meetings and injudicious statements by public officials (such as ‘do not drink the bore water’ and ‘PFOS is the new Asbestos’). His submission argued that the adverse perceptions of Oakey ‘…should not be allowed to fester as there is potential for far reaching damage’.[33]
Concerns of residents
2.28 The committee received many submissions from residents concerned about elevated levels of PFOS/PFOA in their blood, the sudden decrease in value of their properties and the stress the contamination issue has placed on their families.[34] The overall sense of anxiety was captured by the submission from Ms Robyn Wilkins:
I am really concerned about the valuation of my property due to the contamination from the Oakey Army Base through no fault of my own…Neither the Queensland Government or the Commonwealth Government have done anything to help us, we feel like we have been abandoned. Our property is set up for horse training and this requires a substantial and secure water supply. We can’t go on like this. I just don’t know what to do. We are in dire need of any assistance you can give to end the indefinite hanging in the air. We desperately need a resolution to this problem the Army has created.[35]
2.29 Similar evidence was received from Mr Brad Hudson, whose property is located approximately 400 metres from the Army base, about the effects of using contaminated bore water for over 15 years to shower, wash, clean, drink, water stock and hose gardens. His submission described how he, his wife and three children have ‘extremely high’ levels of PFOS in their blood and are worried about the effects on their future health:
My 5 year old daughter has high levels already at her young age. God knows how this will effect her in her future life. My levels…are extremely high and concerning since I have already had testicular cancer at my age of 42. It is extremely hard to close my eyes at night thinking about my family and our futures with these contaminants in our systems at the high levels that they are…
Wouldn’t mind if someone from government was to live a life of uncertainty like we are forced to do. Deal with the stress and headaches that come with our lives now, which is at time unbearable. To try waking up one day and realising that their $700000 property is worth next to nothing now.
…
We need the government…and the army to step up and take full responsibility of the situation and to do whatever it takes to fix this problem. Our futures are depending on it.[36]
2016/17: Millmerran (Queensland) – Lead 0.014mg/L (highest detection)
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016/17 Appendix B)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Nickel: ADWG Health Guideline 0.02mg/L. A chemical element and silvery white corrosion resistant metal with a golden tinge. 60% of nickel production is used in nickel steel (particularly stainless steel). In water, mainly a problem with nickel plated fittings. Main releases to the environment are from the burning of fossil fuels and in waste discharges from electroplating industries.
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2016-17 Appendix B)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
(Toowoomba Regional Council DWQMP Annual Report 2017/18
All results below ADWG health guideline values with exception of mercury in Warragul WTP filtered water inlet to reservoir in March 2012 where a result of 0.0012mg/L was reported.No cause was identified for result All subsequent reticulation monitoring was compliant.
Mercury: Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.001mg/L
Mercury, if it enters the ecosystem can transform into the more toxic methylmercury where it can bioaccumulate. Methylmercury is highly toxic to human embryos, fetuses, infants and children. Mercury has numerous sources including old gold mines, where mercury was used in gold recovery process. It has been estimated that 950 tonnes of
mercury was deposited into Victorian soil, rivers and streams during the various gold rushes.
https://ntn.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/mercury_brief20101.pdf
Nitrate: ADWG Guideline 50mg/L. Nitrate is the product of oxygenated nitrogen created from the breakdown of organic matter; lightning strikes; inorganic pesticides; or explosives. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines recommend that nitrate levels between 50-100mg/L are a health consideration for infants less than three months, although levels up to 100mg/L can be safely consumed by adults. Mainly a problem in Northern Territory and some communities in Western Australia.
Incident Description: The first non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 1/09/2015 at Lion’s Park, Biloela. 1 E. coli organism per 100 mL was detected, with a disinfection residual of 0.19 mg/L.
The second non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 4/01/2016 at Stopford St median, Baralaba. 5 E. coli organisms per 100 mL were detected, with a disinfection residual of 0.07 mg/L.
Incident Description: The third non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 1/03/2016 at Lion’s Park, Biloela. 1 E. coli organism per 100 mL was detected, with a disinfection residual of 0.08 mg/L
Banana Shire Council Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
What’s going on with Biloela and Baralaba’s tap water?
DISCOLOURED water flowing from a small number of household taps in Biloela and Baralaba does not pose a health threat, Banana Shire Council has assured.
The council acknowledged there were areas in these towns where the water coming from taps appeared discoloured and in some cases was carrying a weedy odour or taste and said staff were working to rectify the problem as quickly as possible.
The discolouration was caused by the presence of manganese that had entered the water pipeline network.
Water services manager Anthony Lipsys said the recent period of extreme hot weather had resulted in a significant increase in water usage.
“Last Sunday, 5.8 million litres of water was used in Biloela,” Mr Lipsys said.
“The higher flows of water have dislodged and stirred up a lot of sediment (including manganese) that has settled in the water mains system over a long period of time.”
Council services director John McDougall stressed there was no health risk associated with the discoloured water.
“Drinking water being distributed through the network is meeting all the Australian drinking water quality guidelines,” Mr McDougall said.
“No doubt some of the aesthetic qualities of the water, like colour, taste and odour, are being impacted but it is safe to drink.”
Mr McDougall said the quality of water was tested multiple times a day at various sites by council staff, with samples sent off to Queensland Health in some cases every week.
“If there was a health-related issue, action would be taken immediately and the community would be notified,” he said.
“This is something we are required to do by law.”
Mr Lipsys said the discoloured water usually cleared if the tap water flowed for several minutes.
“However, if the discoloured water does not clear, people are asked to report the matter to council.”
Mr McDougall said flushing mains in the vicinity of properties where discoloured water had been reported had been effective in alleviating the problem.
“We have also introduced a reservoir cleaning program and air-scouring program to help remove sediment from the water mains,” he said.
“The frequency of air-scouring is being reviewed and will be brought forward.
“Council has also been systematically replacing sections of the aging water mains network in Biloela.
“The ability for council to go out and spend $20 million to upgrade every main in town was impossible in the current economic climate.
“However, we have been carrying out mains replacements in towns where we have a water scheme over the past few years and we have a plan for this to continue over the next 10 years in line with our asset management plans.”
Mr McDougall reiterated the problem may persist for a short period but stressed that the drinking water system is safe.
People with concerns about the quality of their water can phone the Banana Shire Council on 4992 9500 or email enquiries@banana.qld.gov.au.
What is manganese?
Manganese is a naturally occurring element that can impart undesirable taste and odour in drinking water.
Higher levels of manganese exist in water where oxygen levels are low.
Water pumped from Callide Dam is drawn from the deepest section of the dam, where oxygen levels are lower.
2014 Jul-Sep: Taroom (Queensland) – Iron 0.52mg/L (Highest level only)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
E.coli Detection – Theodore: E.coli were detected in two samples collected from the Theodore water reticulation network on 26/02/2015. Incident DWI-7-504-00040 refers. The counts recorded were 1 E.coli per 100ml at both locations, with chlorine disinfection residuals of 0.59 mg/L and 0.22 mg/L respectively. Chlorine levels in the system were checked and suitable levels of free chlorine identified. Both in house follow-up sampling (using coli-tabs) and external laboratory analysis by Qld Heath indicated that follow up samples were free of E.coli.
Banana Shire Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2014-15
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
E.coli Detection – Baralaba Reticulation: There was an instance during the reporting period of E.coli detected in a sample collected from the Baralaba Reticulation network. Incident no DWI-7504-00039 (9/1/2015) refers.
E.coli was detected with a count of 9 E.coli per 100ml with a disinfection residual of 0.16mg/L. Investigation identified incorrect sampling procedure as the most likely cause. Instructions regarding correct sampling location and procedure were re-iterated to staff
Incident Description: The second non-compliance was a detection of E. coli from a routine sample taken on 4/01/2016 at Stopford St median, Baralaba. 5 E. coli organisms per 100 mL were detected, with a disinfection residual of 0.07 mg/L. Corrective and Preventative Actions: The target free chlorine residual was increased to 2.0mg/L to achieve a residual free chlorine throughout reticulation of 0.2mg/L. Sampling and testing was performed at all reticulation sampling points to ensure that the residual target was achieved, and the reservoir setpoints were changed to increase the volume of water exchanged. Follow up sampling did not detect any further E. coli
Banana Shire Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2014-15 + 2015-16
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Baralaba (Queensland) – Colour
2017/18: Baralaba (Queensland) – Colour. 120 HU (max), 3.1 HU (mean)
“At times colour is above the ADWG guideline criteria….Generally the colour of treated water at GISC is below the ADWG value, however, large spikes were observed in January 2013 due to an increase in the concentration of manganese in the source water.”
Based on aesthetic considerations, true colour in drinking water should not exceed 15 HU.
“… Colour is generally related to organic content, and while colour derived from natural sources such as humic and fulvic acids is not a health consideration, chlorination of such water can produce a variety of chlorinated organic compounds as by-products (see Section 6.3.2 on disinfection by-products). If the colour is high at the time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products. It should be noted, however, that low colour at the time of disinfection does not necessarily mean that the concentration of disinfection by-products will be low…
2017/18 Baralaba (Queensland) – Iron
2017/18: Baralaba (Queensland) – Iron 7mg/L (max)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures
What’s going on with Biloela and Baralaba’s tap water?
DISCOLOURED water flowing from a small number of household taps in Biloela and Baralaba does not pose a health threat, Banana Shire Council has assured.
The council acknowledged there were areas in these towns where the water coming from taps appeared discoloured and in some cases was carrying a weedy odour or taste and said staff were working to rectify the problem as quickly as possible.
The discolouration was caused by the presence of manganese that had entered the water pipeline network.
Water services manager Anthony Lipsys said the recent period of extreme hot weather had resulted in a significant increase in water usage.
“Last Sunday, 5.8 million litres of water was used in Biloela,” Mr Lipsys said.
“The higher flows of water have dislodged and stirred up a lot of sediment (including manganese) that has settled in the water mains system over a long period of time.”
Council services director John McDougall stressed there was no health risk associated with the discoloured water.
“Drinking water being distributed through the network is meeting all the Australian drinking water quality guidelines,” Mr McDougall said.
“No doubt some of the aesthetic qualities of the water, like colour, taste and odour, are being impacted but it is safe to drink.”
Mr McDougall said the quality of water was tested multiple times a day at various sites by council staff, with samples sent off to Queensland Health in some cases every week.
“If there was a health-related issue, action would be taken immediately and the community would be notified,” he said.
“This is something we are required to do by law.”
Mr Lipsys said the discoloured water usually cleared if the tap water flowed for several minutes.
“However, if the discoloured water does not clear, people are asked to report the matter to council.”
Mr McDougall said flushing mains in the vicinity of properties where discoloured water had been reported had been effective in alleviating the problem.
“We have also introduced a reservoir cleaning program and air-scouring program to help remove sediment from the water mains,” he said.
“The frequency of air-scouring is being reviewed and will be brought forward.
“Council has also been systematically replacing sections of the aging water mains network in Biloela.
“The ability for council to go out and spend $20 million to upgrade every main in town was impossible in the current economic climate.
“However, we have been carrying out mains replacements in towns where we have a water scheme over the past few years and we have a plan for this to continue over the next 10 years in line with our asset management plans.”
Mr McDougall reiterated the problem may persist for a short period but stressed that the drinking water system is safe.
People with concerns about the quality of their water can phone the Banana Shire Council on 4992 9500 or email enquiries@banana.qld.gov.au.
What is manganese?
Manganese is a naturally occurring element that can impart undesirable taste and odour in drinking water.
Higher levels of manganese exist in water where oxygen levels are low.
Water pumped from Callide Dam is drawn from the deepest section of the dam, where oxygen levels are lower.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective in the control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. Source: https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminant
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2017/18: January – March 2018 DWI-7-506-00054. Townsville Drinking Water Scheme. Chlorates >700 μg/L (Townsville Water’s self-imposed limit). Townsville has ongoing issues with chlorates in hot weather; compounded for the past few years by higher chlorine set points due to water restrictions. All mitigation measures available have been put in place. Old stock replaced with new stock, reducing the size of storage tanks, stock emptied before refilling, keeping chlorine residuals as low as possible, lowering of reservoir levels to turn over reservoirs. Chlorates reduced as the temperatures cooled. Investigations are underway to convert Douglas WTP to chlorine gas to reduce chlorate formation. (Chlorate levels 1057mg/L (max) in transmission reservoirs (752mg/L av.)). (Chlorate levels 869mg/L (max) in reticulation (701.5mg/L av.)).
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Townsville (Queensland) – Lead
1 May 2018DWI-7-506-00058: Townsville Drinking Water Scheme. Lead 0.037mg/L Lead was detected on TCC’s side of the meter. Lead was not detected in the house sample. Further investigations and sampling detected lead in a few older suburbs in Townsville. All samples taken were on TCC’s side of the network. A wide range of sampling was carried out to ensure this was not a widespread issue. Over 600 other locations were sampled. It must be noted that bad sampling technique was used and it is thought that due to no flushing occurring and meters being removed that contamination of samples occurred. Resamples (using correct technique) returned results with no lead breaches. To err on the side of caution all affected services were replaced.Lead was detected in two further samples in August. All services and meters were replaced with no lead detected upon retesting. Lead continues to be monitored throughout the network. No further lead has been detected in over 350 samples. Townsville has an ongoing capital works program to replace all old services and this will continue to be funded. This incident was not closed before the end of the financial year. (Highest level listed in report 0.5mg/L (max), 0.04mg/L mean).
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Incident Description: On 8th March 2017 4 org/100ml E.coli was detected at Hillside Crescent. A further detection occurred on 9th March 2017. This resulted in a rolling percentage of 99.8%.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: On 28th February 2017 1 org/100ml E.coli was detected at Mt Margaret Reservoir. A further detection occurred on 6th March 2017. This resulted in a rolling percentage of 99.8%.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: On 29th December 2016 8 org/100ml E.coli was detected at treated water sample at Mt Elliot. Further samples came back clear. This resulted in a rolling percentage of 99.9%.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: On 28th December 2016 18 org/100ml E.coli was detected at treated water sample point Blue Ridge Avenue which is the sample point for Yongala Reservoir. Further samples came back clear. This resulted in a rolling percentage of 99.9%.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: Hand-dosing at Yongala Reservoir was increased from twice weekly to every second day to maintain a chlorine residual. A temporary chlorinator at Yongala reservoir was later installed to remove the need for hand-dosing. The system continues to be monitored closely.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: Detection of chlorates in a treated water sample at Yarrawonga Reservoir, treated water sample in Yarrawonga and in Roseneath reservoir from a sample taken on 14/10/2016. Chlorates remained high across the city for the summer. Townsville has a self-
imposed chlorate reporting limit of 700μg/L.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: Townsville has ongoing issues with chlorates in hot weather; compounded this year with higher chlorine set points due to water restrictions. All mitigation measures available have been put in place. Old stock replaced with new stock, reducing the size of storage tanks, stock emptied before refilling, keeping chlorine residuals as
low as possible, lowering of reservoir levels to turn over reservoirs. Chlorates reduced as the temperatures cooled.
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Incident Description: Detection of THMs (265μg/L) in a treated water sample at Wulguru Reservoir from a sample taken on 23/9/2016.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: Due to water restrictions it has been hard to maintain chlorine residuals at optimal levels to the outlying parts of the network. Due to an E.coli
detection (DWI-7-506-00041) chlorine levels were dosed at a higher level in Yongala reservoir which had a knock on effect at Wulguru reservoir. The increased chlorine with higher
temperatures generated excessive THMs. Chlorine residuals were dropped slightly (so as not to compromise disinfection), reservoir levels were dropped slightly to increase turnover and a greater monitoring of THMs occurred.
February – May 2018DWI-7-506-00055. Townsville Drinking Water Scheme Wulguru. THMs (271 μg/L and 289 μg/L) at Wulguru and Dahl reservoir. THMs were then detected across much of the network in February. THMs were detected across much of the network in February due to high rainfall which resulted in low usage. Chlorine set-point was high to ensure adequate disinfection to the outlying areas. TCC reduced set-points at Douglas WTP from 5mg/L in February due to the rain and low usage to 3.2mg/L in May due to increased usage across the network. TCC were also able to reduce chlorine set-points at re-chlorination points. This coupled with the lowered temperatures and increased demand across the network lowered THMs across the region. (Report also stated THM’s in Transmission Reservoirs 310ug/L (max), 198ug/L (av.) & Reticulation 308ug/L (max), 182.5ug/L (av.)
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Casuarina Park, Annandale – Queensland – Manganese
Incident Description: Detection of Manganese (1.1mg/L) at Casaurina Park, Annandale on 17th
February 2016. This was a highly unusual sample. Historically there has never been an issue with elevated Manganese (Mn) in the Townsville drinking water system. There is no Mn in the treated water from Douglas WTP. No other sample taken on the day had elevated Mn. Public health would not have been affected as the tap was a vandal proof tap, not accessible to the public, on a grass verge that is not used by the
public.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: All Manganese data was analysed. Resamples were taken, both at this point and at nearby points. All resamples came back as well below ADWQ Guidelines or not detected. It is unclear what caused the elevated Mn. The sample tap was removed and a more representative sample point is now in use. Elevated Mn has not been
detected anywhere in the Townsville Drinking Water Scheme since.
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbling fixtures and laundry.
Incident Description: Detection of E.coli (1or/100ml) in an Oak Valley house sample on 23rd November 2015. Free chlorine was 0.19mg/L and total chlorine was 0.27mg/L. pH was 6.9. The rolling average for the month was 99.9%. Four other samples in the Oak Valley area did not detect E.coli .
Corrective and Preventative Actions: There was a chlorine dosing fault during the night at the re-chlorination station at Mt Jack. This allowed a “glug” of minimally chlorinated water to enter the system. Pumps were resetand the area was flushed. All resamples came back clear of E.coli.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident Description: Detection of E.coli (1 org/100ml) in Rosslea house sample on 8th July 2015. Sample had a chlorine concentration of 1.3mg/L Free Chlorine and 1.7mg/L Total Chlorine. The
E.coli rolling percentage average for the month was 99.9%
Corrective and Preventative Actions: The sample point was inspected and it was discovered that the sample address (house sample point) had become derelict and had no turnover of water (2KL consumed in the preceding year). It was ascertained that the sample was compromised by the poor sample location. A dedicated sample point was installed in a park nearby. Resamples and all further samples have come back clear of E.coli. It must be noted that this non-compliance led to an overhaul of all of Townsville City Council’s sampling locations.
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Incident description: Detection of Giardia (1 cysts/10L) at Paluma Weir (raw water supply) on June 1st 2015. A boil water notice was put in effect due to chlorination being the only treatment at Paluma. A further positive result (3cysts/10L) was received on 13th June 2015
Incident Description: Routine raw water samples on 26th October 2016 at Paluma weir detected 4 Cryptosporidium oocysts/10L in the raw water supply. Subsequent samples detected the presence of Giardia. As chlorination is the only treatment at Paluma and as chlorine does not
deactivate Cryptosporidium or Giardia in concentrations safe for human consumption Paluma Township was placed on boil water advisory until a Treatment Plant is commissioned. The Treatment Plant is due to be commissioned March 2018.
A JUNGLE waterhole is making Paluma residents sick.
Residents of the mountaintop village deep in the rainforest, 90km north of Townsville, are fed up with the quality of the drinking water sourced from a weir blocking a small jungle creek.
Residents, including an almost non-stop stream of children from regional schools who stay at camps in Paluma, are drinking bottled water instead of the water locals say makes them sick.
Linda Radbone, 53, has had a severe bowel infection caused by the parasite giardia duodenalis twice this year. She said the sickness, commonly known as “giardia”, caused diarrhoea and debilitating stomach cramps.
The Townsville Bulletin visited the small weir on a creek in the rainforest from where the water is sourced. The waterhole looks more like a secret jungle pool than a town water reservoir. Locals say there is often a problem with the water, but add it seems to have been worse over the last two years.
“There hasn’t been much rain to flush the creek out,” Ms Radbone said. “We think there could be animal droppings in the creek, especially bird droppings.”
Townsville Mayor Jenny Hill said it was possible that bacteria in the water was coming from human or animal waste. She said council was investigating the possibility that septic systems close to the water supply area could be leaching into the creek.
“We don’t know this, but we are looking at all possibilities,” she said.
Ms Radbone said making things worse for her was the fact she was menopausal.
She said that due to the BPA (bisphenol A) which is a chemical oestrogen used in the manufacture of most plastic drink containers she could not drink the bottled water being supplied by council.
“I’m going through menopause and the BPA reacts with my hormones,” she said.
Ms Radbone said she was boiling all of the water she used for drinking and for washing salad ingredients.
“You can wash vegies that you are going to cook with the town water, but you can’t wash salads or anything like that,” she said.
Ms Radbone said she was boiling the local water and then filtering it before using it for drinking or for washing food.
“But you still have to shower. You have to be careful it doesn’t get up your nose,” she said. “It’s like living in a Third World country.”
Resident Bruno Arbidans said the town’s 24 permanent residents were doing the best they could. He said the “bug” in the water had been causing problems for the past six to eight months.
“I bring water back when I go to Townsville,” he said.
When the Townsville Bulletin was in Paluma a staff member from one of the government school camps was ferrying crates of bottled water down the street on a trolley for visiting students.
Large reserves of bottled water are kept in the community hall for visitors.
Cr Hill said there had been evidence in the water of both giardia duodenalis and the microscopic parasite cryptosporidium which causes diarrhoea, stomach cramps, vomiting and fever.
“We haven’t been able to determine if the cryptosporidium is from human or animal faeces,” she said.
Cr Hill said council had spent $12,000 cleaning out the weir and had advertised for expressions of interest from companies that specialise in operating small remote area water storages.
Paluma (Queensland) – Cryptosporidium
Incident description: Detection of Giardia (1 cysts/10L) at Paluma Weir (raw water supply) on June 1st 2015. A boil water notice was put in effect due to chlorination being the only treatment at Paluma. A further positive result (3cysts/10L) was received on 13th June 2015
Incident Description: Routine raw water samples on 26th October 2016 at Paluma weir detected 4 Cryptosporidium oocysts/10L in the raw water supply. Subsequent samples detected the presence of Giardia. As chlorination is the only treatment at Paluma and as chlorine does not
deactivate Cryptosporidium or Giardia in concentrations safe for human consumption Paluma Township was placed on boil water advisory until a Treatment Plant is commissioned. The Treatment Plant is due to be commissioned March 2018.
“In recent years, Cryptosporidium has come to be regarded as one of the most important waterborne human pathogens in developed countries. Over 30 outbreaks associated with drinking water have beenreported in North America and Britain, with the largest infecting an estimated 403,000 people (Mackenzieet al. 1994). Recent research has led to improved methods for testing water for the presence of humaninfectious species, although such tests remain technically demanding and relatively expensive.
Cryptosporidium is an obligate parasite with a complex life cycle that involves intracellular development in the gut wall, with sexual and asexual reproduction. Thick-walled oocysts, shed in faeces are responsible for transmission. Concentrations of oocysts as high as 14,000 per litre in raw sewage and 5,800 per litre in surface water have been reported (Madore et al. 1987). Oocysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water under cold conditions (King and Monis 2007).
There are a number of species of Cryptosporidium, with C. hominis and C. parvum identified as the main causes of disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans. C. hominis appears to be confined to human hosts, while the C. parvum strains that infect humans also occur in cattle and sheep. C. parvum infection sare particularly common in young animals, and it has been reported that infected calves can excrete up to 10 billion oocysts in one day. Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been attributed to inadequate or faulty treatment and contamination by human or livestock (particularly cattle) waste.
C. hominis and C. parvum can be distinguished from one another and from other Cryptosporidium species by a number of genotyping methods. Infectivity tests using cell culture techniques have also been developed. Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are an important source of cryptosporidiosis and direct contact with a human carrier is also a common route of transmission.Transmission of Cryptosporidium can also occur by contact with infected farm animals, and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Giardia
“Although known as a human parasite for 200 years, Giardia has been regarded seriously as an agent of disease only since the 1960s. It has been identified as an important waterborne pathogen, and linked to many outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water, particularly in North America. Although the importance of this organism has been established, there are large gaps in knowledge about it, and there are no tests for identifying the presence of human infectious species in water.
Giardia has a relatively simple life cycle involving two stages: a flagellate that multiplies in the intestine, and an infective thick-walled cyst that is shed intermittently but in large numbers in faeces. Concentrations of cysts as high as 88,000 per litre in raw sewage and 240 per litre in surface water havebeen reported (Wallis et al. 1996). Giardia is typically present in larger numbers in Australian sewagethan Cryptsoporidium. Cysts are robust and can survive for weeks to months in fresh water.
There are a number of species of Giardia, but human infections (giardiasis) are usually assigned to one, G. intestinalis (= G. lamblia and G. duodenalis). G. intestinalis infections have been reported from domestic and wild animals, but the host range of human infectious species is uncertain. Although substantial advances have been made in the sampling and counting of cysts, there are currently no established methods to identify human infectious organisms in water. Waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis have generally been linked to consumption of untreated or unfiltered surface water and contamination with human waste.
Consumption of contaminated drinking water is only one of several mechanisms by which transmission (faecal-oral) can occur. Recreational waters, including swimming pools, are also emerging as an important source of giardiasis. However, excluding outbreaks, by far the most likely route of transmission is by direct contact with a human carrier. Transmission of Giardia can also occur by contact with infected animals and occasionally through contaminated food.” ADWG 2011
Paluma (Queensland) – Chlorate
Incident description: Detection of chlorates Paluma Reservoir (0.797 mg/L) and Paluma house sample (0.753mg/L) on 20th December 2014 (results received from the Lab on 2nd January 2015). It is worth noting that there is no health (or aesthetic) guideline value for chlorates in the ADWQ guidelines. Instead Townsville water has a self-imposed target value of <0.7mg/L.
Incident Description: Ongoing chlorate detections at Paluma Township from January through to April. Paluma Township is on a boil water advisory and TCC is supplying bottled water to the residents and visitors.
Corrective and Preventative Actions: The chlorate issue is caused by the high summer temperatures in Paluma. Sodium Hypochlorite (hypo) storage tank is as small as it can be operationally and it is restocked regularly with fresh hypo. Paluma hypo is stored in a fridge to try and mitigate the temperature issue. The high chlorate levels reduced with the cooler
March 2018DWI-7-506-00056. Paluma Drinking Water Scheme. Chlorates >700 μg/L (Townsville Water’s self-imposed limit). The Paluma site was being prepared for the delivery of the water treatment plant and the township was running off a temporary tank. As there were no provisions for dosing the temporary tank, the raw water was being dosed at the weir. Due to distance travelled and the higher dose, higher chlorate concentrations were detected in the water at the township. Paluma residents and visitors were drinking bottled water supplied by TCC due to the boil water advisory. The Paluma WTP was installed and commissioned in April 2018. Although TCC still use sodium hypochlorite as its disinfectant, the water treatment plant is ultrafiltration with GAC, removing most of the particles and organics from the water and so the chlorine set point has reduced significantly. This is resulting in the formation of less chlorates. Chlorates are the lowest they have been in Paluma since testing began in 2013.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Paluma (Queensland) – Trihalomethanes
Incident description: Detection of Trihalomethanes (THMs) (286 μg/L) in Paluma House sample on 7th January 2015. Recent high rainfall stirred up water in Paluma Weir, resulting in a higher organic load which resulted in an increased chlorine demand to maintain adequate disinfection.
Incident Description: Detection of THMs (291μg/L and 274μg/L) in a treated water sample taken on 25/11/2015. This was not picked up on at the time and was reported at a later date. Later samples came back within limits.
17/1/19: THMs, 293, 290, 371µg/L Low water usage resulted in the reservoir level being too high and due to increased water age there was more time for THM formation to occur. There was low water use due to high rainfall.
Reservoir level was reduced and fresh water added. This reduced THM concentration in the water. Work has since been carried out on the GAC with more frequent backwashing occurring. THM formation potential pre and post GAC is monitored closely.
Trihalomethanes Australian Guideline Level 250μg/L (0.25mg/L)
Why and how are THMs formed? “When chlorine is added to water with organic material, such as algae, river weeds, and decaying leaves, THMs are formed. Residual chlorine molecules react with this harmless organic material to form a group of chlorinated chemical compounds, THMs. They are tasteless and odourless, but harmful and potentially toxic. The quantity of by-products formed is determined by several factors, such as the amount and type of organic material present in water, temperature, pH, chlorine dosage, contact time available for chlorine, and bromide concentration in the water. The organic matter in water mainly consists of a) humic substance, which is the organic portion of soil that remains after prolonged microbial decomposition formed by the decay of leaves, wood, and other vegetable matter; and b) fulvic acid, which is a water soluble substance of low molecular weight that is derived from humus”. US EPA
Paluma (Queensland) – Lead
14/6/19: Paluma (Queensland) – Lead 0.01mg/L (max).
Lead, 0.01mg/L This was a new sample point and, upon discussion with Townsville Public Health, it was decided to monitor the sample point further rather than installing a new sample point. Twelve further samples have not detected lead and the original result is believed to be erroneous.
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Paluma (Queensland) – Iron
2014/15: Paluma (Queensland) – Iron 1.7mg/L (Highest level only)
2015/16: Paluma (Queensland) – Iron 2.3mg/L (Highest level only)
2016/17: Paluma (Queensland) – Iron 1.5mg/L (Highest level only)
Based on aesthetic considerations (precipitation of iron from solution and taste),
the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
No health-based guideline value has been set for iron.
Iron has a taste threshold of about 0.3 mg/L in water, and becomes objectionable above 3 mg/L. High iron concentrations give water an undesirable rust-brown appearance and can cause staining of laundry and plumbing fittings, fouling of ion-exchange softeners, and blockages in irrigation systems. Growths of iron bacteria, which concentrate iron, may cause taste and odour problems and lead to pipe restrictions, blockages and corrosion. ADWG 2011
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Cungulla Reservoir (Queensland) – Chlorate
Incident description: Detection of chlorates (0.708 mg/L) on 6th January 2015 at Cungulla Reservoir. As above it is worth noting that there is no health (or aesthetic) guideline value for chlorates in the ADWQ guidelines.Instead Townsville water has a self- imposed target value of <0.7mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
One non-compliance was recorded in the Giru Cungulla Water Scheme as follows:
Brolga Park Giru – 4 April 2017 – sample taken at 7:20am – detection of 0.83mg/L Chlorate
Follow up sample – 3 May 2017 – returned results of 0.410mg/L Chlorate. This detection occurred during the cyclone event while raw water supplies were very turbid. Burdekin
Shire Council receives bulk treated water from Townsville City Council’s Cungulla Water Treatment Plant already chlorinated. In such conditions, the plant struggles to treat the water well, so considerable chlorine is consumed by the remaining organics. BSC boosts chlorination to ensure a residual throughout the Giru network and raise dosing rates at such times to account for the increase in organics carried through the treatment process, thus ensuring microbial safety of the water.
Source: Burdekin Shire Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2016/17
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Burdekin Shire Drinking Water Quality Management Plan 2015/16
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
2018/19: Ayr (Queensland) October 2018/February 2019
1Notifiable Incidents details:
(i) Combined PFHxS/PFOS – Reported 12 October 2018 Ayr Water Tower – 0.084 ug/L
Council Chambers Tap – 0.77 ug/L
Samples taken in the Ayr Water Supply Network on 27 September 2018 resulted in the above detections of combined PFHxS/PFOS.
Investigations found this to be as a result of bores 2 and 5 Nelsons Lagoon.
These two bores as well as Bore 3 Nelsons Lagoon, have since been taken offline permanently.
Follow up samples were taken on 16 October 2018 with the following results:
Ayr Water Tower – 0.070 ug/L
Council Chambers Tap – <0.003 ug/L
Samples were again taken on 26 February 2019 with the following results:
Ayr Water Tower – 0.048 ug/L
Council Chambers Tap – 0.018 ug/L
Status for all PFHxS/PFOS – completed pending close out Due to hazard and safety concerns with access to the Council Chambers Tap, this location has been changed to the Council Chambers Bore 15 Reticulation site which is in close proximity to the previous location but in a safer area.
2017/18
After receiving a directive from the Department of Health advising drinking water service providers test their drinking water for PFAS as soon as practicable and after an internal risk assessment,
BSC commenced PFAS sampling with the 6 bores at Nelsons Borefield in Ayr.
Results for initial samples taken by Queensland Health on 29 March 2018 showed levels in all bores in Nelsons, South Ayr and Home Hill tested below the draft ADWG guideline limit of 0.07 ug/L total PFOS/PFAxS. Queensland Health decided to resample on 9 May 2018. Test results received on Friday 25th May showed Bores 2 and 5 Nelsons over the draft limits with results as
follows:
• Bore 2 – 0.22 ug/L
• Bore 5 – 0.18 ug/L
Bores 2 and 5 Nelsons were immediately turned off and tagged out within an hour of results being received
• The Mayor and Chief Executive Officer were informed in relation to test results and actions
• DNRME, the Water Supply Regulator was informed of the test results by phone at 3pm via the DWQI hotline and in writing by 5pm
• Resampling of all Nelsons zone area plus three reticulation locations South Ayr – Basin Tap, Council Chambers and Ayr Water Tower was performed on 28 May 2018. Bores 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 plus the three reticulation samples all returned results under the guideline value.
• Follow up sample results for PFOS/PFAxS as follows:
o 28/05/2018 – Nelsons Bore 2 – 0.43 ug/L
o 28/05/2018 – Nelsons Bore 5 – 0.03 ug/L
o Reticulation network samples on 7 June and 12 June 2018 returned results well below the guideline value.
o 14 June 2018 – Bore 2 Nelsons – 0.42 ug/L (standing) and 0.43 ug/L (running)
o 14 June 2018 – Bore 5 Nelsons – 0.029 ug/L (standing) and 0.066 ug/L (running)
Bores 2 and 5 Nelsons remain switched off and no longer in use. Council is investigating the installation of additional bores for the Ayr/Brandon network in areas with no PFAS detection.
Monitoring of PFAS is ongoing in both the BSC’s raw water and reticulation network. These samples will be added to the Verification Monitoring Schedule of the Council’s DWQMP.
Drinking Water Quality Management Plan
Annual Report 2017/18 Burdekin Shire Council
Ayr/Braddon (Queensland): E.coli
2014/15: Ayr/Braddon Park (Queensland) – 1org/100mL
Source: Burdekin Shire Drinking Water Management Plan 2014/15
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Chlorine-resistant pathogen reduction: Where filtration alone is used as the water treatment
process to address identified risks from Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it is essential
that filtration is optimised and consequently the target for the turbidity of water leaving
individual filters should be less than 0.2 NTU, and should not exceed 0.5 NTU at any time
Disinfection: A turbidity of less than 1 NTU is desirable at the time of disinfection with
chlorine unless a higher value can be validated in a specific context.
Aesthetic: Based on aesthetic considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at the
consumer’s tap
Based on aesthetic considerations (taste), the concentration of zinc in drinking water should
be less than 3 mg/L. No health-based guideline value is proposed for zinc.
Zinc is widely distributed and occurs in small amounts in almost all rocks, commonly as the sulfide. It is used as a coating to prevent corrosion of iron and steel products, and in the manufacture of brass. Zinc oxide is an important component in the manufacture of paint and rubber products, including tyres.
In surface and ground waters, the concentration of zinc from natural leaching is usually less than 0.01 mg/L. Tap water can contain much higher concentrations as a result of corrosion of zinc-coated pipes and fittings. Zinc concentrations in galvanised iron rainwater tanks are typically 2 mg/L to 4 mg/L but have been reported as high as 11 mg/L.
Taste problems can occur if the zinc concentration in drinking water exceeds 3 mg/L. Water with a zinc concentration above 5 mg/L tends to be opalescent, develops a greasy film when boiled, and has an undesirable dry ‘metallic’ taste. Zinc is present in plant and animal tissues, and food is the major source of zinc intake. Drinking water usually makes a negligible contribution to total intake. 2011 ADWG
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Source: Burdekin Shire Drinking Water Management Plan 2014/15
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
Based on health considerations, the guideline value for total chlorine in drinking water is 5 mg/L.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine and hypochlorites are toxic to microorganisms and are used extensively as disinfectants for drinking water supplies. Chlorine is also used to disinfect sewage and wastewater, swimming pool water, in-plant supplies, and industrial cooling water.
Chlorine has an odour threshold in drinking water of about 0.6 mg/L, but some people are particularly sensitive and can detect amounts as low as 0.2 mg/L. Water authorities may need to exceed the odour threshold value of 0.6 mg/L in order to maintain an effective disinfectant residual.
In the food industry, chlorine and hypochlorites are used for general sanitation and for odour control. Large amounts of chlorine are used in the production of industrial and domestic disinfectants and bleaches, and it is used in the synthesis of a large range of chemical compounds.
Free chlorine reacts with ammonia and certain nitrogen compounds to form combined chlorine. With ammonia, chlorine forms chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride or trichloramine) (APHA 2012). Chloramines are used for disinfection but are weaker oxidising agents than free chlorine.
Free chlorine and combined chlorine may be present simultaneously (APHA 2012). The term totalchlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample.
Chlorine (Free) ADWG Guideline: 5mg/L (Chlorine in chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L). Chlorine dissociates in water to form free chlorine, which consists of aqueous molecular chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion.
Chlorine (Total) ADWG Guideline 5mg/L (chloraminated supplies 4.1mg/L): The term total chlorine refers to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine present in a sample
Manganese: ADWG Guidelines 0.5mg/L. ADWG Aesthetic Guideline 0.1mg/L
Manganese is found in the natural environment. Manganese in drinking water above 0.1mg/L can give water an unpleasant taste and stain plumbing fixtures and laundry.
Brisbane/Ipswich (Queensland) – Lead
2013/14: Brisbane/Ipswich (Queensland) – Lead 0.029mg/L (highest detection)
2014/15: Brisbane/Ipswich (Queensland) – Lead 0.025mg/L (highest detection)
Lead Australian Drinking Water Guideline 0.01mg/L
“… Lead can be present in drinking water as a result of dissolution from natural sources, or from household plumbing systems containing lead. These may include lead in pipes, or in solder used to seal joints. The amount of lead dissolved will depend on a number of factors including pH, water hardness and the standing time of the water.
Lead is the most common of the heavy metals and is mined widely throughout the world. It is used in the production of lead acid batteries, solder, alloys, cable sheathing, paint pigments, rust inhibitors, ammunition, glazes and plastic stabilisers. The organo-lead compounds tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead are used extensively as anti-knock and lubricating compounds in gasoline…
Sparkes Hill Reservoir 2, Brisbane (E.coli 1 MPN/100 mL, 24/03/2016). This non-routine sample was collected from the reservoir hatch in response to a detection of E.coli in the downstream distribution system. Chlorine levels were low in this chloraminated system at the time of sampling with Total Chlorine 0.37 mg/L. Seqwater confirmed that there were no operational issues through reservoir inspections and extensive follow up sampling on the reservoir inlet, outlet and nearby Aspley Reservoir. The system was also operated to increase chlorine levels to 1.5- 2.0 mg/L through the blending of water supplied from North Pine WTP. Further testing confirmed that that normal chlorine levels in the system were restored…
“Coliforms are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile salts or other surface active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They are found in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals, but many species also occur in the environment.
Thermotolerant coliforms are a sub-group of coliforms that are able to grow at 44.5 ± 0.2°C. E. coli is the most common thermotolerant coliform present in faeces and is regarded as the most specific indicator of recent faecal contamination because generally it is not capable of growth in the environment. In contrast, some other thermotolerant coliforms (including strains of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Enterobacter) are able to grow in the environment and their presence is not necessarily related to faecal contamination. While tests for thermotolerant coliforms can be simpler than for E. coli, E. coli is considered a superior indicator for detecting faecal contamination…” ADWG 2011
“Noosa Connection, Northern Pipeline Interconnector (Chlorate 0.87 mg/L, 14/03/2016). The incident was attributed to small amounts of sodium hypochlorite that had oxidized due to age within the chemical storage tank at (the upstream) Caloundra Street WQMF. Seqwater immediately switched to another chemical storage tank at this site and confirmed that the treated water was within specification (0.59 mg/L, at 3 PM, 17/03/2016). The sodium hypochlorite in the affected tank was pumped out and replaced with fresh supplies. Weekly test results (average 0.29 mg/L over the following four weeks) confirmed that the issue had been resolved.
This exceedance is based on health criteria in Seqwater’s DWQMP of 0.8 mg/L as no ADWG value exists for chlorate. Seqwater continues to implement and review its management of sodium hypochlorite supplies and on-site storage. The Material Management procedures for Caloundra Street WQMF was reviewed and updated to prevent recurrence of this incident.”
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite and chlorate is oxidative stress resulting in changes in red blood cells. This end point is seen in laboratory animals and, by analogy with chlorate, in humans exposed to high doses in poisoning incidents (WHO 2005).” Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – National Health and Medical Research Centre
“…Subchronic studies in animals (cats, mice, rats and monkeys) indicate that chlorite and chlorate cause haematological changes (osmotic fragility, oxidative stress, increase in mean corpuscular volume), stomach lesions and increased spleen and adrenal weights… Neurobehavioural effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude, decreased brain weight and decreased exploratory activity) are the most sensitive endpoints following oral exposure to chlorite…” https://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/chlorite-chlorate/indexeng.
php#sec10_1Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
“DWI-507-00090. Noosa WTP (Bromate 0.021 mg/L, 22/12/2014). Short duration spike in the bromate concentration due to elevated levels of bromide in the source water which is subsequently oxidized during water treatment by the ozonation process step. A review of results found that this was an isolated occurrence with low bromide/bromate levels (less than the LOR of 0.05 mg/L) in the preceding and following weeks. This incident occurred during the last reporting period, but was reported to WSR on 28/07/2015. The most significant issue in this incident was that the exceedance was not identified by the contracted laboratory or Seqwater’s Laboratory Information System (LIMS). This resulted in a delay in notifying the Water Supply Regulator as Seqwater only became aware of the exceedance during a review of its data for the 2014-15 reporting year. Both laboratories have reviewed their processes and LIMS systems to prevent recurrence.”
Bromate: Regulatory Standard = 0.02mg/L (Also see section of desalination). A suspected carcinogen. Bromate is formed when ozone used to disinfect drinking water reacts with naturally occurring bromide found in source water. Bromate formation in disinfected drinking water is influenced by factors such as bromide ion concentration, pH of the source water, the amount of ozone and the reaction time used to disinfect the water.
Noosa WTP (Chlorate 0.98 mg/L, 13/04/2015; and 1.11 mg/L, 20/04/2015). Seqwater confirmed the exceedance by retesting (internal laboratory result 1.11 mg/L, 22/04/2015). The sodium hypochlorite which was held on site was pumped out and replaced with fresh supplies. Seqwater confirmed the effectiveness of replacing the sodium hypochlorite through testing of the chemical and follow up testing of the treated water.
SEQWater Annual Drinking Water Quality Plan 2014/15
Chlorite: ADWG Health 0.3mg/L.
Chlorite and chlorate are disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection process.
“… industry are having serious problems meeting chlorite/chlorate limits that were proposed in the new Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, especially for disinfection in long distance pipelines that are dosed with sodium hyptochlorite” pers comm 18/5/11.
“Chlorite occurs in drinking water when chlorine dioxide is used for purification purposes. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that chlorite is not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans and is listed in the Group 3 category. Changes in red blood vessels due to oxidative stress are a major concern with excessive levels of Chlorite in drinking water. According to the US EPA, potential health problems for people drinking Chorite above safe drinking water guideline include: Anemia in infants and young children and nervous system effects.” https://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
“Chlorine dioxide (chlorite) is rarely used as a disinfectant in Australian reticulated supplies.
When used, the chlorite residual is generally maintained between 0.2mg/L and 0.4mg/L. It is
particularly effective inthe control of manganese-reducing bacteria. Few data are available on
chlorate levels in Australian water supplies….Chlorine dioxide, chlorite, and chlorate are all
absorbed rapidly by the gastrointestinal tract into blood plasma and distributed to the major
organs. All compounds appear to be rapidly metabolised. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to
impair neurobehavioural and neurological development in rats exposed before birth. Experimental studies with rats and monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in drinking water have shown some evidence of thyroid toxicity; however, because of the studies’ limitations, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (WHO 2005) The primary concern with chlorite